THE FLORENTINE LODGE
THE FLORENTINE LODGE
----+---------+--------------------------+---------------------------------
1. | 1258 | Magister Jacopo Tedesco | Built castles at Arezzo and
| | da Campione | Poppi; and the Bargello at
| | | Florence.
| 1298 } | |
2. | to } | M. Arnolfo (his son?) | C.M. of the Duomo. Built the
| 1310 } | | Palazzo Vecchio.
| | |
3. | 1340-48 | M. Giotto | Designed the campanile, and
| | | sculptured the first row of
| | | reliefs.
| | |
4. | | M. Andrea Pisano | Made door of Baptistery.
| | |
5. | 1349-59 | M. Francesco Talenti | C.M. of the Duomo.
| | |
6. | 1350 | M. Neri Fieravanti } |
| | } |
7. | | M. Niccolaus Beltrami } | Four Masters who went to
| | } | Carrara to buy marbles for the
8. | | M. Benozzus Niccolaus, } | Campanile, of which they were
| | his son } | joint architects.
| | } |
9. | | M. Albertus Arnoldi } |
| | |
10. | 1355 | M. Frate Jacopo | Brother of Francesco Talenti;
| | | sent to Rome for marbles.
| | |
11. | " | M. Francesco da Siena | Carved stalls in Siena
| | (called Francesco del | cathedral: sent for to carve the
| | Coro) | stalls of the choir of S. Croce.
| | |
12. | " | M. Benci Cione | { Father of Orcagna. They were
| | | { called in the Council of the
13. | " | M. Ristoro Cione (a | { Opera to consider Francesco
| | relative) | { Talenti's design for the
| | | { chapels, July 1355.
| | |
14. | " | M. Lapo Ghino | Descended from Ghini Ventura
| | | di Diotisalvi of Siena.
| | |
15. | " | M. Giovanni di Lapo | C.M. with F. Talenti, 1360 to
| | Ghino.[236] | 1368.
| | |
16. | | M. Bartolo da S. Ghallo | A Lombard from S. Gall,
| | | grandfather of the famous
| | | Giuliano and Antonio San Gallo.
| | |
17. | 1356 | M. Ambrogio Lenzi | Son of Guglielmo da Campione;
| | (Ambroxios da Campione) | was C.M. of the Baptistery in
| | | 1356; C.M. of the Duomo in 1362.
| | |
18. | | M. Stefano Metti |
| | |
19. | 1357 | M. Domenico di Noffo | Sent to Siena to buy marbles.
| | |
20. | " | M. Giovanni Belchari | { These three were joint C.
| | | { Maestri for the upper part of
21. | | M. Vigi Grilli | { the Campanile. In 1362 Gio.
| | | { Belchari was poor and infirm,
22. | | M. Bancho Falchi | { and the guild gave him a
| | | { pension.
| | |
23. | | M. Agostino Falchi } |
| | (brother of the } | Joint Masters for the walls
| | preceding) } | and columns of the Duomo.
| | } |
24. | | M. Niccolò Megli } |
| | |
25. | | M. Andrea di Cione | In council with Frati and
| | (Orcagna) | Magistri about the space
| | | between the columns. Later he
| | | became famous as painter and
| | | sculptor, and made the shrine
| | | in Or San Michele.
| | |
26. | | M. Jacopo di Lapo | Makes a model of the shaft.
| | Chavacciani |
| | |
27. | | M. Mato di Cenni } | These were engaged for the
| | } | bases of the columns.
28. | | M. Jacopo di Polo } |
| | |
29. | 1362 | M. Barna Batis | Provveditore after Filippo
| | | Marsili.
| | |
30. | | M. Davinus Corsi |
| | |
31. | 1363 | M. Simone Johannes dal | Engaged to carve the twisted
| | Pino | columns of red marble in the
| | | windows of the Duomo.
| | |
32. | " | M. Ambrosius Ghini | A relative of Lapo Ghino.
| | |
33. | 1364 | M. Sandro Macci | In council on the domes, with
| | | many others named before and
| | | after.
| | |
34. | | M. Francesco Neri | Sculptured pila and relief in
| | Sellari | S. Croce.
| | |
35. | 1366 | M. Simone di Francesco | C.M. of Or S. Michele in 1376.
| | Talenti | With Taddeo Ristori in 1366 he
| | | made a design for a chapel.
| | |
36. | " | M. Jacopo Pauli | Engaged Aug. 31, 1366, to make
| | | capitals for columns in the
| | | sacristy.
| | |
37. | " | M. Mato Jacobi } |
| | } |
38. | " | M. Aldobrando Jacobi } | His three sons who assisted
| | } | him.
39. | " | M. Corso Jacobi } |
| | |
40. | 1367 | M. Bernabè Pieri } | Made a contract on Aug. 31,
| | } | 1366, to carve some capitals.
41. | " | M. Manetti Pieri } |
| | |
42. | 1368 | M. Francesco Michaeli | Advises about Or San Michele
| | | with Gio. di Lapo Ghino.
| | |
43. | | M. Mattheo olim Cionis | One of the Masters employed
| | | in Or San Michele, brother of
| | | Orcagna.
| | |
44. | 1375 | M. Giovanni Giuntini |
| | |
45. | | M. Francesco Salvetti | C.M. in 1375, but resigned
| | | later in favour of Giovanni
| | | Fetti.
| | |
46. | 1376 | M. Taddeo Ristori | One of the Cione family;
| | | architect at Or San Michele,
| | | and the Loggia de' Lanzi after
| | | his uncle Benci Cione.
| | |
47. | | M. Ambrogio di Vanni } |
| | } | Masters in stone-carving.
48. | | M. Leonardo olim Masis } |
| | |
49. | 1377 | M. Johannes Michaeli, | Went to Prato on Oct. 2, 1377,
| | brother of Francesco | with Tommaso Mattei to buy
| | (No. 42) | marble.
| | |
50. | | M. Tommaso Mattei | Son of Matteo di Cione.
| | |
51. | | M. Zenobio Bartholi | Was paid 18 florins on Dec.
| | | 15, 1377, for a figure of the
| | | Angel Michael. He also carved
| | | two other figures at 20
| | | florins.
| | |
52. | " | M. Simone Francesci | Elected C.M. in 1377. Son of
| | Talenti | the C.M. Francesco. He
| | | sculptured a figure in 1377,
| | | and was paid 13 florins.
| | |
53. | 1380 | M. Jacopo da Scopeto | Worked in the choir.
| | |
54. | | M. Pietro Landi of Siena | Son of the famous Lando, C.M.
| | | of Siena Lodge.
| | |
55. | 1381 | M. Johannes Fetti | Elected C.M. with Guazetta on
| | | March 14, 1381. Designed the
| | | window under the vault on the
| | | north side.
| | |
56. | | M. Johannes Stefani, | Was a famous Master in
| | called Guazetta, son of | woodwork; he was noted for
| | No. 18. | foundations and scaffolding.
| | |
57. | 1383 | M. Laurentius Filippi | C.M. of the Loggia dei Lanzi
| | | with Benci Cione, who was
| | | master builder.
| | |
58. | 1384 | M. Giovanni di Ambrogio | Gave his vote at a meeting on
| | da Lenzo (son of | April 4, 1384, about the
| | No. 17). | pilasters of the tribune. Was
| | | chosen C.M. on Feb. 28, 1400.
| | |
| 1386 | M. Luca di Giovanni da | Carved some angels.
| | Siena |
| | |
59. | 1388 | M. Michael Johannis Lapi | Succeeded Lorenzo Filippi
| | Ghini | as C.M. on July 15, 1388.
| | |
60. | 1389 | M. Antonio Francisci | Elected _Arch Magistrum_,
| | | but deposed in 1420 by the
| | | council; and Giovanni di
| | | Ambrogio of Campione was
| | | elected.
| | |
61. | 1404 | M. Niccolao called Pela | Sculptured the door of the
| | | chapel of the Crucifix from
| | | Giovanni d'Ambrogio's design.
| | |
62. | 1418 | M. Baptista Antoni (son | Elected C.M. when Giovanni
| | of Antonio, No. 60) | d'Ambrogio resigned by reason
| | | of old age.
| | |
63. | | M. Piero d'Antonio | Nicknamed Fannulla (Do
| | (another son of Antonio, | nothing).
| | No. 60) |
| | |
64. | " | *M. Matteo di Leonarda | All the masters marked * sent
| | | in plans for the Cupola. The
65. | | *M. Vito da Pisa | design of Brunellesco, who I
| | | believe not to have been of
66. | | *M. Piero di Santa Maria | the guild, was chosen.
| | |
67. | | *M. Donatello |
| | |
68. | | *M. Nanni di Banco |
| | |
69. | | *M. Lorenzo Ghiberti | _Provisore_ of the Cupola with
| | | Baptista Antoni when
| | | Brunellesco's plan was chosen.
| | |
70. | " | M. Andrea Berti }|
| | Martignoni }|
| | }|
71. | " | M. Bonaiuti Pauli }|
| | }| All these Masters were employed
72. | " | M. Papi di Andrea }| to erect a large model of the
| | }| design of Brunellesco for the
73. | " | M. Aliosso }| Cupola, on the Piazza del
| | }| Duomo.
74. | " | M. Cristoforo di Simone }|
| | }|
75. | " | M. Giovanni di Tuccio }|
| | }|
76. | " | M. Jacobo Rosso }|
| | |
77. | " | M. Giovanni dell Abbaco | Worked at the Cupola under
| | | Brunellesco.
| | |
78. | | M. Antonio di Vercelli |
| | |
| | M. Gherardo (_tedesco_) }|
| | }|
| | M. Ghabriella }| Three Germans who were paid
| | (_tedesco_) }| for models of a cupola.
| | }|
| | M. Averardo ("_magistro }|
| | teutonico_") }|
----+---------+--------------------------+-------------------------------
Art is like a flower. If the seeds are sown in favourable soil the
plant grows, develops, and bears beautiful blossoms, which in their
turn leave seed for future generations. If the soil be not favourable,
the plant may perhaps reach its flowering season, but it is weak, and
the seeds lack the power of reproduction.
Thus in small cities like Modena, Parma, Orvieto, etc., the artistic
atmosphere and soil were wanting. The lodges of those cities never
became firmly rooted. The Lombard Masters placed there did their work,
and then moved to other cities, but the natives remained uninfluenced.
In Pisa, art first took root. The Pisans, whose artistic faculties had
been awakened by the classic spoils they had gathered together in
their conquests, found a practical outlet for them in the teaching of
the _laborerium_ set up in their midst by Buschetto and his assistants
and followers. Pisans joined the lodge, and from it great teachers
arose. Siena was the next lodge that took root, and drew native
artists into it; then followed Venice and Florence; and through them
all, distinct as they became in later times, the seed was always sown
by the Comacines or Lombard Masters. The Campionese and Buoni families
are at the bottom of all the Tuscan schools, and every one of these
cradles of art was of the self-same form, _i.e._ composed of the
school, the _laborerium_, and the _Opera_ of the Comacine Masters.
And what connection had Arnolfo, the first designing architect of the
Florentine cathedral and Palazzo Vecchio, with this Masonic company?
He had much to do with it, inasmuch as he was an hereditary member, in
fact one of the aristocracy of the guild, and he had a most complete
training in it. The first trace we get of Arnolfo is his instruction
in the school of Magister Niccolò Pisano. The proof of this is a deed
drawn up in Siena on May 11, 1266, in which these words
occur--"requisivit Magistrum Nicholam Petri de Apulia quod ipse
faceret et curaret ita; quod Arnolfus discipulus suus statim veniret
Senas ad laborandum in dicto opere, cum ipso magistro Nichola." Here
we have Niccolò di Pisa as Master in the guild, and his disciple
Arnolfo not yet having graduated.
Another paper relating to Niccolò's work on the pulpit at Siena
says--"Secum ducat Senas Arnolphum et Lapum, suos discipulos."
By 1277 Arnolfo seems to have graduated, for when Niccolò and Giovanni
di Pisa were at work on the beautiful fountain at Perugia in that
year, Fra Bevignate, the _soprastante_ of the work, sent to call
Magister Arnolfo from Florence to assist in the sculpture of the
fountain. Arnolfo, however, declared in a letter dated Aug. 27, 1277,
that he could not go to Perugia, or undertake any work there without
the consent of King Charles of Anjou (King of Naples and Sicily) or of
Hugo, his vicar in Rome. King Charles was applied to, and on Sept. 10
of that year he wrote conceding permission to Arnolfo to go and assist
his old master--then 74 years of age--and also to take the marbles
necessary.[237]
These documents are very valuable apart from the fact they chronicle.
They show how the guild was not only privileged by the reigning
monarch, but that he was the active president of it. It explains all
those queer words on Longobardic inscriptions, beginning--"In tempore
Dominus Honorius Episcopus," "In tempore præsule Paschalis, etc.,"
showing that they point out the reigning king, pope, or patron bishop
who was at the time president of the Great Guild. The name of this
highest magnate is usually followed in these inscriptions by the Grand
Master, _soprastante_ or _operaio_ of the special lodge. The
universality of the guild is also shown; its president, the king,
being at Naples, his "vice" at Rome.
The next place in which we see Arnolfo is in Rome, where he worked
with his _socio_ (fellow Freemason), Pietro, at the tabernacle of San
Paolo fuori le mura. Here, with this ancestor of the Cosmati, Arnolfo
learned his love of polychrome sculpture, which he afterwards adapted
to the larger uses of architecture; for his grand Florentine Dome
seems only a magnified inlaid casket. There is a beautiful piece of
inlaid work in the Opera del Duomo which I believe to have been the
_pluteus_ or parapet of the tribune in Arnolfo's time. It is in the
Cosmatesque work which Arnolfo often executed. That he was as apt a
pupil of the Cosmatesque revival of the _opus Alexandrinum_ as he had
been of Niccolò's figure sculpture, and his father Jacopo's
architecture, is evident by his tomb of Cardinal de Braye at Orvieto,
where we next find him working in 1285.[238] The tomb is a beautiful
mixture of Cosmatesque ornamentation with the legitimate sculpture
which he had learned from Niccolò. The capitals of the spiral inlaid
columns of the sarcophagus are of the true old Romano-Lombard form. In
the simple grace of the recumbent figure we descry a forerunner of
Donatello and Desiderio.
We have now traced Arnolfo's training through three or four of the
chief lodges, and always under the best Masters. It is then no marvel
that by 1294 his fame had risen so high that he was chosen as
architect of the Duomo of Florence. He was well known to the
Florentines, his master, Jacopo Tedesco, otherwise Lapo, having left
Colle to settle in Florence, where he was engaged to build the Palace
of the Podestà (Bargello). And this brings us to the vexed question of
the parentage of Arnolfo.
Vasari says that Jacopo or Lapo, whom he calls "il Tedesco" (meaning
Lombard architect), was the father of Arnolfo, and he gives this as a
certain fact, understood to be the case by the world in general for
two or three centuries past.
Milanesi, on the strength of the document quoted above, "Secum ducat
Senas Arnolphum et Lapum suos discipulos," says that Lapo was only
Arnolfo's contemporary and fellow-pupil.
[Illustration: MONUMENT TO CARDINAL DE BRAYE. BY MAGISTER ARNOLFO.
_See page 314._]
But neither Vasari nor Milanesi seem to reflect that there might have
been two Lapi. Certainly, if two youths are fellow-disciples of one
Master, it is not probable that the senior should be the son of the
other. On the other hand, if "Jacopo il Tedesco," said to be Arnolfo's
father, was elected head architect at Assisi in 1228, how could he
have been a young pupil of Niccolò di Pisa in 1266?
Recognizing these difficulties, Milanesi sets out in search of a
father for Arnolfo, in place of Lapo, his fellow-pupil. He comes
across a document in the archives of the "Riformazione" of Florence,
dated MCCC. Aprile 1, where the privileges of citizenship are accorded
to "Magistrum Arnolphum de Colle, filium olim Cambij."[239] In quoting
this, Gaye[240] says that in spite of it the Florentines will persist
in calling Arnolfo the son of Lapo. Now cannot these conflicting facts
be reconciled? It is a strange fact that in no other Florentine deed
except this one privilege is any sign of parentage given to Arnolfo.
He is so enveloped in the greatness of being _caput magister_, and the
greatest architect of his day, that his parentage seems to be lost
sight of, though the universal custom of the day was to cite the
father's name as well as the son's in a document. Therefore, though we
have never before heard the surname of Jacopo il Tedesco, there is no
reason in the world why it should not be Cambi. By the time Arnolfo
was grown up, Jacopo Tedesco had lived many years in Florence; he
therefore, having become a Florentine citizen, may have taken office
and might have been connected with the Cambio, or Exchange there,
taking his name from that office, as a large family of Cambi during
the Republic seems to have done.
I incline, however, to another theory--that Cambij is a corruption of
Campij, or Campione--for the following reason--As early as 1228 Jacopo
Tedesco was already a _Magister_, and of such fame that he was chosen
as master architect of the grand church of S. Francesco at Assisi, in
conjunction with Fra Philippus de Campello. In spite of Fergusson's
opinion that the architect of these large buildings was generally a
mere builder, working under some ecclesiastic who drew the plan, the
evidence goes to prove, in this case, that Jacopo the layman was _capo
maestro_, and Fra Philippus the ecclesiastic only _aiutante_
(assistant). Campello was a corruption of Campiglione or Campione,
which name, first taken from a place near Como, became afterwards the
distinctive title of the Parma school of Comacine Masters. We find it
spelt in different documents: Campillio, Campellio, Campilionum,
Campione, often shortened into Campi͠o or Camp͠i. All the older
writers say that Jacopo Tedesco was a Comacine or Lombard, and if so,
he was one of the Campionesi. His name occurs in a stipulation made at
Modena on Nov. 30, 1240, where he and Alberto are qualified as uncles
of Magister Enrico, one of the contracting parties.[241] This may well
have been the father of Arnolfo, especially as Baldinucci[242] asserts
that Jacopo Tedesco lived at Colle in Val d'Elsa, where Arnolfo was
born, while his father was building the castle there. With these
lights Milanesi's documental "Arnolphus de Cambii" may be accounted
for. If the members of the Campione school in the north took that as
their name, why should not Jacopo also have signed himself Campione?
It is more than probable he shortened it according to custom into
Campi͠o, and may not have been very particular to distinguish
between the kins-letters p and b, a very common fault in the sketchy
spelling of old MSS., and especially likely to occur if, while
Lombardy was a German province, he should have imbibed a German
accent. This would reconcile all the dispute. Arnolfo was evidently
closely connected with the elder Lapo, his style being so similar.
Compare the Palazzo Vecchio and Bargello with Lapo's castle of Poppi,
and the relation is evident. His connection with the younger Lapo is
equally clear. In the list of qualified masters in painting at
Florence, quoted by Migliore in _Firenze illustrata_, p. 414, is
Niccolò Pisano's pupil, who is called Lapo di Cambio. This would
suggest that Arnolfo and his fellow-pupil Lapo were brothers as well
as fellow-pupils, so that when Lapo the younger finished Jacopo
Tedesco's (Lapo the elder's) work at Colle, he was only following out
the usual rules of the guild, in which the son succeeded the father.
[Illustration: PALAZZO VECCHIO, FLORENCE. DESIGNED BY ARNOLFO.
_See pages 257 and 317._]
The thirteenth century was a time of immense development in art; what
Niccolò and Giovanni di Pisa did for sculpture, Jacopo Tedesco and
Arnolfo did for architecture. Jacopo was the first to introduce the
pointed arch into Central Italy, at Assisi; Arnolfo further developed
it in his cathedral at Florence, where the arches of the nave are
round, and the windows pointed. After this era we have no more
Romanesque--the reign of Italian Gothic has begun.
The Basilican form, too, has vanished; we have now the nave and
transepts of the Latin cross. No longer the small double-arched
window, but long pointed arches filled with beautiful tracery. The old
symbolic animals linger on, but in the subordinate form of grotesques
in ornamentation.
That distinctive mark of the guild, the lion of Judah, takes a new
position in the Italian Gothic. It is no longer between the pillar and
the arch, but beneath the column, as Niccolò and Guido da Como first
placed it in their pulpits. You see it under the pillars of the north
door of the Florentine Duomo, where the transition into Renaissance
is indicated by a particularly classic figure of a child standing by
the lion; and under the central column of the windows of the Spanish
chapel in the cloister of S. Maria Novella, where it serves to mark
the fact that the architects Fra Sisto and Fra Ristoro (who in the
documents of the time are styled Magister Fra Sisto and Magister Fra
Ristoro) were members of the Masonic Guild.
Jacopo, the inaugurator of Italian Gothic, spent all his later years
in Florence, having left Colle many years before, when he had finished
the castle there. Jacopo's work in Florence consisted of the building
of the Bargello, which is a perfect specimen of the late Comacine
style, built in _modo gallico_ with large smoothly-hewn stones. The
connection of the Masters of the guild with the south of Italy is
shown here as well as at Pisa, for it is said that King Manfred
commissioned Jacopo Tedesco to design the sepulchre of the Emperor
Frederic in the abbey church of Monreale in Sicily. (Manfred died in
1266.)
Jacopo also introduced a reform into Florence. In the time when Messer
Rubaconte of Como was Podestà of Florence (1236, 1237), his
compatriot, Jacopo Tedesco of Campione, near Como, proposed to him
that the streets should be paved with stones instead of bricks, to
which Messer Rubaconte agreed, and the same method of paving still
continues in Florence.
The second Lapo, Arnolfo's fellow-pupil, and perhaps brother, was the
author of several buildings in the end of the thirteenth century,
which Vasari falsely attributes to Jacopo the elder. He also continued
Jacopo Tedesco's fortifications at Colle.[243]
Whether we look on Arnolfo as the son of Jacopo Tedesco, or only as
the pupil of Niccolò Pisano, he was, either way, one of the guild; and
more, a follower of Jacopo rather than of Niccolò, his bent being
rather architectural than sculptural. We can, then, place Arnolfo as
the first head of the _laborerium_ of Florence; and in tracing the
formation of this branch of the guild, we shall throw a light on all
the former branches, which, from want of systematic documents, have
remained as formless organizations of _schola_, _laborerium_, and
_Opera_. After trying in vain to find something more explicit about
these organizations at the National Library and State Archives, I
consulted the director of the Opera del Duomo, who kindly saved me the
work of long puzzling over old MSS., by lending me a copy of Cesare
Guasti's valuable collection of abstracts from the books of the
_Opera_, from the earliest days of Arnolfo to the completion of the
cathedral.
Here the whole organization stands revealed. Here are the meetings of
the lodge, and the subjects discussed; the names of the _Magistri_ and
Council of Administration from year to year; the payments to
architects, artists, and men; the legal contracts and business
reports.
It is clearly seen how the _Opera_ is connected with the _laborerium_,
and how the meetings are always composed of some civic members from
the Council of Administration, and some from the working Masters of
the lodge.
One, dated October 15, 1436, reports a meeting in the Opera del Duomo,
at which the attendant _Operai_ or councillors were Ugo Alessandri,
Donato Velluti, Nicolo Caroli de Macignis, and Benedict _Cicciaporci_
(pig's flesh); here's a nickname! They deliberated on the advisability
of sending for a certain Francesco Livii de Gambasso, _Comitatus
Florentiæ_, who was at Lubeck in Germany, to make the painted windows
and mosaics. Francesco, when he came back to the city which he had
known in his boyhood, and where he had learnt his art, bound himself
to work in the _laborerium_ of the _Opera_, "et in dicta civitate
Florentiæ in Laboreriis dictæ Operæ toto tempore suæ vitæ eidem
continuum, ac firmum inviamentum exhiberent, ita, et taliter, quod
ipse una cum sua familia victum, et vestitum in præfata Civitate
erogare posset."[244] This one document gives valuable proof on
several points.
It proves that whether or not Italy got her architects from Germany,
Italian Masters were employed in Germany.
It proves that there was a guild in Florence, "Comitatus Florentiæ,"
to which Francesco Livii belonged, and that there was a _laborerium_
in Florence, in which Francesco, when a boy, had learned his art, and
risen to the rank of Master. It proves, moreover, that the
_laborerium_ was connected with the _Opera_.
Another meeting of the same _Opera_ on November 26, 1435, held to
consider all the designs for the choir of the Duomo, marks this
connection still more plainly.
"Nobiles viri Johannes Sylvestri de Popoleschis, Johannes Tedicis de
Albizzis, Johannes ser Falconis Falconi, Jacobus Johannis de Giugnis,
et Hieronymus Francisci dello Scarfa, Operarii dictæ Operæ, existentes
collegialiter congregati in loco eorum residentiæ pro factis dictæ
Opera utiliter peragendis, absque aliis eorum Collegis, et servatis
servandis:
"Attendentes ad quandam Commissionem factam per eorum Offitium de
ordinatione Altaris majoris dictæ Ecclesiæ, et Chori ipsius Ecclesiæ
infrascriptis Civibus, et Religiosis Sacræ Theologiæ, Magistro Jacobo
Grægorii del Badia Ordinis Fratrum Minorum, Magistro Sandro de
Covonibus Converso Hospitalis Sanctæ Mariæ Novæ de Florentia,
Francisco alterius Francisci Pierotii della Luna Nerio Gini de
Capponibus egregio Medicinæ Doctori, Magistro Paulo M. Dominici, et
Juliano Thomasii Gucci, omnibus Civibus Civitatis Florentiæ, et ad
quemdam rapportum per eos factum coram eorum Offitio infrascriptæ
continentiæ."[245]
Here follow the criticisms of this council on three designs for the
choir: one by Filippo Brunelleschi; one by Nencio di Bartoluccio; a
third by Magister Agnolo da Arezzo.
Observe that we have as master architects of the guild, a monk and a
hospital warden, called on the Commission with the _Operai_, who were
influential citizens, but not qualified Masters. This seems to throw a
light on the word _colligantes_, "Magister comacinus cum colligantes
suos," in the old laws of Rotharis. Would not the _colligantes_ mean
the Consuls and _Operai_, members of the _Opera_ or administrative
body in these great works of church-building, whom the _Magistri_ of
the guild elected from the influential men of the city in which they
were?
Here are a few translations of his quaint statements of the orders the
_Provveditore_ received from the _Operai_--
"_June 1353._--Operai: Lotto, Lapo, Piero di Cienni, Simone di Michele
Ristori. They tell me to make haste and obtain the payments from the
'Camera' (council), and the 'Gabelle' (octroi). I must manage that by
St. John's Day; the 'covelle' of the Campanile must be finished. And
to do that, I must get two of the _Magistri_ from Or San Michele. And
the scaffolding must be taken down from S. Giovanni (the Baptistery),
so that the work may be seen."
This entry shows how many buildings the guild were engaged on, and how
the architects of them all were under the command of the _Opera_, or
centre of administration for all.
"_August 14, 1353._--Piero, Lotto, and Simone." (Every entry begins by
naming the _Operai_ in council.) "To order designs for a
tabernacle.... Get it made. To order the design for the campanile, and
in what kind. Have it done in wood. To order marble, for the work at
the summit. To tell Francesco[246] there is work for a year. About
the rations of Neri Fieravanti. Give him the money to pay all the
master's claims, and you, Filippo, shall be the pay-master, and we
will provide the means." ("Dalle danari per pagare tutti i maestri
loro, e tu Filippo sia loro camarlingo, e noi ti faremo
provedere.")[247]
The way in which the _Provveditore_, Filippo Marsili, talks of
himself, and puts down his orders from the _Operai_ just in their own
words, is naïve in the extreme. His memoranda are certainly
delightful.
Here is another very busy day--
"_September 26, 1353._--Operai: Simone, Migliorozzo, Francescho,
Piero." (This time the head architect, Francesco Talenti, was in
council.) "To elect a salaried lawyer. About a notary for citations.
About the nine hundred and fifty lire which the Commune has of ours.
To pay by the piece, rather than by the day. To send to Carrara (for
marble). Put it off till All Saints' Day. Of the many documents we
need.... To reason with the Regolatori.[248] To speak with the
captains of the Misericordia about our many legacies.... Tell them to
let us know when they meet. About the Wills. To discuss it with Ser
Francescho Federigi (a notary). To find means to get ready money. Try
and get a discount on the tax on assignments. About the wine for the
Masters. Take it away entirely. About Francesco and the window ... to
pay the Master who had the commission ... and when the work is done,
have it valued, and the surplus, or the deficit, will be entered to
Francesco" (head architect).
Truly it was no sinecure to be _Provveditore_ for the guild of
architects in those days. He must have had his hands full indeed! When
the Masters were not satisfied with their pay, and a work had to be
appraised, like this window, a special council was called, consisting
of the Consuls of the Arte della Lana, who were the Presidents of the
_Opera_, the members of the _Opera_, and all the _Magistri_ of the
_laborerium_. The Masters were then called on one by one to give an
estimate of the work, and discuss its merits; a ratio was taken, and
the medium price fixed.
The same kind of council was called to consider any designs.
Generally, several of the _Magistri_ sent in their designs, or models
made of wood. These were discussed in council, and votes taken before
the final commission was given. The report of one of these meetings,
where each Master naïvely voted for his own design, is very amusing.
The Masters were strictly bound by contract to the _laborerium_. In
some cases they were paid by the day. We find, on May 29, 1355, that
the salaries of Masters were lessened by two soldi a day, and workmen
by one soldo. Sometimes the Commune found them wine and rations; at
others they were paid by the piece, by contract. On June 7, 1456, the
_Provveditore_ writes--"It is desired that on no account shall any
Master go to work outside the Opera, without the deliberation and
consent of all four Operai. If any absent himself without this
permission, he shall be considered as discharged."
The schools attached to the _laborerium_ must have been very complete.
They trained pupils in the three sister arts--architecture, sculpture,
and painting. One sees the remains of them in the Belle Arti at
Florence, Siena, and other towns, and the Academy of St. Luke at Rome.
Not all the _Magistri_ were teachers, but there were certain of them
who held office as Professors. Niccolò di Pisa was certainly one of
these, and so were Cimabue and _Magister_ Giotto.
This full art-education accounts for the artist of the Renaissance
being such an all-round man. One finds a painter like Giotto, or a
sculptor like Niccolò Pisano, building grand architectural works.
Sometimes they graduated in all three arts, as did Landi, Giotto, and
Leon Battista Alberti.
When they graduated in the schools, they became _Magistri_ of the
guild, and could then undertake commissions. Besides the _Magistri
fratelli_, there were the undergraduates as it were; in old Latin
documents they are written as _fratres_; below these were the novices
or pupils. The workmen employed by them were quite unconnected with
the guild, and were paid daily wages as manual labourers.
The light thus thrown on the organization of the Masonic Guild by the
valuable collection of documents made by Cesare Guasti, seems to me to
explain much that was puzzling in the Florentine city guilds. For
instance, why, among all the _Arti_, is there none which includes
architects, sculptors, or painters? It would have been supposed that
in the early days of the republic, when the Commune spent its wealth
and enthusiasm on erecting great and noble buildings, architecture
would certainly have ranked among the greater _Arti_, even in
competition with the wool-combers and silk-weavers. But there was no
such civic guild. There was a minor one for masons and stone-cutters,
but it was established later for workmen and mere house-builders, and
had nothing to do with great architects or master sculptors; while
painters who wished to be members of the Commune and have any hand in
the government, had to enroll themselves in the Goldsmith Guild, or
the "Arte degli speziali" (doctors and apothecaries). The existence of
this Freemasonic Guild would explain this hiatus in the greater arts.
While such a powerful and self-governing body existed, which had
evidently the monopoly for Italy in the art of church-building, a mere
city guild would never have been able to compete with it, and would
have been superfluous.
That it really held the monopoly is more than probable. We have traced
the Comacines through each gradation, have seen the successive schools
and branches started by them in each place where they had great works
in hand. The Buoni family at Modena going on to the south of Italy and
then to Pistoja, founded that school. The Campione branch at Verona
and Parma hence passed to Assisi and Florence. The Lucca school of
Lombard Masters spread to Pisa and gathered into it native talent.
The later gathering of Lombards and Pisans at Siena thence moved to
Orvieto, and sent a branch to Florence in the persons of Jacopo
Tedesco and Arnolfo. There taking root it grew into the goodly flower
of the Renaissance. And after efflorescence,--decay; the old
organization, by degrees, dissolved in the greater freedom of art.
Each Master aimed to stand alone on his own merits, and was no longer
necessarily enrolled as one in a guild.
A great many things besides are revealed to us by Guasti's collection
of documents. We find that Arnolfo died in 1310; Vasari read it
wrongly as 1300, so that Arnolfo would only have worked a year or two
at his Duomo. The correct entry in the archives is--"IIII idus
(martii) Quiescit magister Arnolfus de l'opera di Santa Reparata
MCCCX."[249]
It is a strange coincidence that the death registered before Arnolfo
in the Necrology should be a man named Cambio, a locksmith, but he
seems to have no connection with Arnolfo, whose parentage as usual is
not indicated.
Thus we see that Arnolfo at the most only worked eleven or twelve
years at a building which took more than a century to finish. How much
did he accomplish? Probably not more than the foundations and the
design which he left, and which may be seen to this day; for it is
usually understood that the church in the fresco of the Spanish chapel
represents the Duomo as Arnolfo designed it. After his death Florence
fell upon warlike times, and was unable to continue the work till
1331, when the "city being in a happy and tranquil state, recommenced
the building of the church of Santa Reparata, which had for a long
time been in abeyance, and had made no progress, owing to the many
wars and expenses which the city had undergone." The deed goes on to
relate that the Arte della Lana was placed at the head of the
administration, and that a tax of two denari per libbra on all moneys
paid to the Commune should be appropriated for the expense, as had
been decreed before. They further added another tax on the customs, so
that the two amounted to 12,000 _libbre picciole_ a year. Besides
this, every shop in Florence was to have a money-box where they were
to place _il denaro di Dio_ (tithes) on all they sold.[250] I quote
this to show how cities in the good old church-building days paid
their architects. It is probable that the schools of the guild had
continued in this interval, though the _Magistri_ may have had to seek
work elsewhere, for by July 18, 1334, we find Giotto as a _Magister_,
selected as architect of the Campanile, though he seems to have had
very little to do with the Duomo. His marvellous tower, in its varied
colouring and artistic effect, shows the hand of a painter rather than
an architect. He did not live to see his work completed, for on
January 8, 1336, he died, soon after his return from Milan, where he
had been sent in the services of the Visconti, and had a public
funeral at the expense of the Commune in Santa Reparata. The fact
that the work of his tower went on in his absence, proves that he must
have had brethren in the guild capable of carrying out his plans. As
the foundations were only laid in July 1334, and Giotto died in
January 1336, after a long absence at Milan, one wonders how he found
time to sculpture the reliefs in his Hymn of Labour. However, we must
take Ghiberti's testimony for it. In his second _Commentary_, Ghiberti
says[251]--"The first line of reliefs which are in the Campanile which
he erected were sculptured and designed by his own hand. In my time I
have seen his own sketches beautifully drawn." A contemporary
anonymous commentator on Dante writes[252]--"Giotto designed and
superintended the marble bell-tower of Santa Reparata in Florence, a
notable tower and costly. He committed two errors--one that it had no
base, and the other that it was too narrow. This caused him such grief
that, they say, he fell ill and died of it." I think indeed that if
Giotto had found any error he would have rectified it in the plans
which he left for his successors. That it had no foothold is not true,
for the solid foundation was placed so far beneath the surface that it
stood firm on the solid _macigno_ (kind of granite rock) twenty
_braccia_ below.
His successor was of another branch of the guild, but a Masonic
_Magister_ all the same. On April 26, 1340, Andrea di Pisa was
elected by vote by the Council of the _Opera_ to succeed Giotto as
head architect.[253]
There must have been other _Magistri_ proposed as candidates, if the
Council had to resort to black and white beans for the voting. Andrea
only lived a few years; he died, or retired from office, in 1348, the
year of the great plague; and Francesco Talenti became _caput
Magister_ in 1350. Francesco was a brother of Fra Jacopo Talenti,
_Magister lapidum et edificorum_, who was joint architect with Fra
Ristoro of the convent and church of Santa Maria Novella from 1339 to
1362. Francesco, like his brother, must have been in the guild; he
worked at Orvieto cathedral among numbers of Como and Lombard Masters
in 1329. In April 1336 we find him called to Siena as an expert.[254]
There had been discovered some defect in the columns. Francesco's
companion from Florence was Benci di Cione. His office as _capo
maestro_ of the Duomo of Florence continued some years, though he did
not reign alone, but was associated with Giovanni di Lapo Ghino, who
after 1360 is called joint _capo maestro_. The principal documents of
their administration prove that there were endless councils and
arguments about the size, height, and placing of the columns, and
discussions on Talenti's plan for the chapels at the east end. This
seems to have been a crucial question.... Councils of four _Magistri_
in each were held for three consecutive days--July 15, 16, and 17,
1355; and their opinions given in writing. On August 5 the grand
united council of twelve Masters and the whole lodge was held, when
the proportions for the columns were decided, and Francesco's design
for the chapel approved.
Another Council was held on June 8, 1357, with the _Operai_ and
Consuls of Arts, and their ecclesiastical colleagues, when the
undermentioned Masters and monks gave their counsel on the church--a
proof of the close affinity of ecclesiastics with the Masonic Guild.
Frate Francischo of Carmignano
" Jacopo Talenti. S. M. Novella
" Franciescho Salvini. S. Croce
" Tommasino. Ogni Santi
" Jachopo da S. Marcho
" Piero Fuci, e
" Filippo sacrestano di S. Spirito
" Benedetto dalle Champora
Magister Neri di Fieravanti
" Stefano Messi
" Franciescho Salviati
" Giovanni Gherardini
" Giovanni di Lapo Ghini
" Franciesco dal Choro
" Ristori Cione
" Ambrogio Lenzi, or Renzi
The report was written by Sig. Mino, notary of the guild; the spelling
of the names is his own.
Several of the same monks met at the _Opera_ on July 12, 1357, to
consult about the placing of the columns in the second foundation.
Also, on July 17, 1357, to choose between two designs of columns and a
chapel made by Francesco Talenti and Orcagna, when each candidate
elected two Masters as arbiters. Francesco Talenti chose Ambrogio
Lenzi, a Lombard, and Frate Filippo Riniero of S. Croce. Andrea
Orcagna chose Niccolò di Beltramo, also a Lombard, and Francesco di
Neri. These could not decide, and Piero di Migliore the goldsmith was
taken as umpire, the parties binding themselves to abide by his
decision. Giovanni di Lapo Ghino and Francesco Talenti were ordered
to make new designs. At length, on July 28, Orcagna's plan was chosen.
Talenti's office was no sinecure; we often find him disputing with
other Masters. Indeed, the lodge greatly lacked unity. Disintegration
was beginning. On August 5, 1353, the _Provveditore_, Filippo Marsili,
writes--"I must get Neri di Fioravanti and Francesco Talenti to settle
that dispute within fifteen days. They must choose an arbiter each,
and may elect the third arbiter by joint consent." They chose Benozzi
as mutual third. Again on October 4, 1353--"The Master who executes
Francesco Talenti's design for the window must be paid his demands.
When the work is done, have it valued, and the balance more or less to
go to Francesco's account."
He seems also to have been an improvident sort of man. Here are two
tell-tale entries in Filippo Marsili's memorandum book--"July 12,
1353. Advance him as soon as convenient the pay for four months. Take
it out, by deducting half his salary weekly." Again in November the
entry is--"Lend him what he wants."
In 1376 Francesco's son Simone became joint _capo maestro_ with Benci
Cione, Orcagna's father, at a salary of eight gold florins a month.
Simone graduated also in the sculpture school, and executed a figure
for the façade, for which he was paid thirteen florins on September 4,
1377. Zanobi Bartoli, also a _Magister lapidum_ (sculptor), was at the
same time paid twenty gold florins each for two marble figures, though
he received only eighteen florins for his statue of the Archangel
Michael in December of the same year.
Francesco's colleague, Giovanni di Lapo Ghino, is a good instance--one
of many--of the hereditary nature of the guild. We first hear of Ghino
at Siena in the thirteenth century. On February 7, 1332, his sons
Simone and Jacopo, or Lapo di Ghino, sign a contract with Agostino
and his son Giovanni of Siena, to build a chapel in the Pieve S. Maria
at Arezzo--that of Bishop Tarlati, Bindo de' Vanni and his son
Francesco, with two other _Magistri_, being witnesses.[255]
In 1362 a certain Ambrosius Ghino is named in a list of the lodge. He
may have been a brother or nephew of Lapo. Then comes the third
generation, and we find Giovanni, son of Lapo di Ghino, at Orvieto. He
afterwards came to Florence, where he was elected _capo maestro_, at
first in unison with Jacopo Talenti, and later by himself. In 1388 old
Ghino's great-grandson, whose whole pedigree is given in the books as
"Michele, Johannis, Lapi, Ghini," became in his turn _capo maestro_ of
the Duomo of Florence. His descendant, Antonio Ghino, also graduated
in the Florentine Lodge, but he went back to Siena, where he appears
as one of the _Magistri_ employed there in 1472.
This family is only one of many hereditary Masonic brethren. The Cione
family is another instance. The first Masters of the name appear in
Florence on July 1355, as Ristoro and Benci Cione, two members
attending the Council on Francesco Talenti's design for the chapels,
but whether they were brothers or father and son I cannot tell; I
presume brothers, or Benci would have been written down as Benci
Ristori di Cione.[256] We have seen Benci Cione called to Siena as an
arbiter. He was much occupied in Florence, where he worked at the
building, or rather adaptation, of Or San Michele. He and Laurentius
Filippi (Lorenzo, son of Filippo Talenti) were joint architects of the
Loggia dei Lanzi, Lorenzo superintending the sculpture, and Cione the
architecture. Lorenzo has set the sign of the guild on the base of his
columns by surrounding them with small pillars on which lions are
crouching; the proportions and ornamentation of the building are
beautiful. Orcagna has always been credited as the architect of this
Loggia, but he is here proved not to be the original designer, though
he probably worked with his father.
Orcagna's name, Andrea di Cione, first appears in the great Council
with monks and _Magistri_, held on June 18, 1357, to decide on the
space which should be left between the columns of the Duomo.[257]
Andrea's nickname of Orcagna, a corruption of Arcangelo (Archangel),
has clung to him through centuries, and over-shadowed his real
patronymic of Cione. The relation between him and Benci di Cione
remains rather obscure. Orcagna has also had the credit of building
the church of Or San Michele. Probably writers confuse Orcagna, or
Andrea di Cione, the sculptor of the beautiful shrine in that church,
which is his masterpiece, with the Benci di Cione who was architect of
the building. From the close connection of the two in the guild, and
from Orcagna having worked so much with Benci, I think it probable
they were father and son. Milanesi is rather uncertain about the
father of Orcagna, and in the genealogical table at the end of his
life he writes him as Cione with a note of interrogation, and no
Christian name, which may well have been Benci.
[Illustration: SHRINE IN OR SAN MICHELE, FLORENCE. DESIGNED BY
"ORCAGNA" (ANDREA CIONE).
_See page 333._]
Orcagna first studied painting under his elder brother Nardo (short
for Bernardo), who was enrolled in the "company of St. Luke." But this
was only one branch of Andrea's art-education. He matriculated in the
Masonic Guild (_Arte dei maestri di pietra e legname_), in the books
of which it is written--"Andrea Cioni, called Archangel, a painter of
the parish of S. Michele Visdomini, took his oath and promises in the
said guild, Magister Neri Fioravanti being his sponsor, in 1352,
sixth indication, October 29."[258]
It was Orcagna's way to emphasize his varied qualifications by signing
his paintings, "Andrea di Cione, scultore," and his sculptures,
"Andrea di Cione, pittore." On his masterpiece, the shrine in Or San
Michele, he has inscribed, "Andreas Cionis, pictor Florentinus,
oratorii arch magister extitit hujus MCCCLIX." The expression
"Archmagister of the Oratory" (or shrine) explains many things. It
tells us that the whole of that complicated piece of sculpture, though
it may have been designed entirely by Orcagna, was not entirely
executed by him, but that, like other _Magistri_, he had a band of
brethren working under him; for how could he have been _chief_ Master
where there were no lesser ones under his command?
It is interesting in studying the working of the Masonic Guild, of
which Orcagna signs himself Archmagister, to see how they are occupied
in building several grand edifices at once. The immense number of
Masters congregated in the Florentine Lodge rendered this possible,
and wealth was not lacking in the city to employ them.
The books at the _Opera_ reveal how the Council of Administration
dominates the _laborerium_. We shall see how the busy _Provveditore_
has to change the _Magistri_ about from Santa Croce to Or San Michele;
or from the Duomo to San Michele Visdomini, just as need presses. He
has to order marbles for all and any of these edifices; to call
councils to consider designs for all kinds of different buildings and
parts of buildings, such as windows, chapels, doors, etc. Sometimes we
find him commissioning a certain architect to make a plan for a
chapel, or a door, or a window. When Talenti and Giovanni Ghino had
both made designs for the tribune in October 1367, the usual councils
were not enough to decide the momentous question which to choose. The
whole city had to be called into council, together with the monks
(_frati colleganti_), the _Magistri_ of the guild, etc. Hundreds and
thousands of people came to the _Opera_, looked at the designs, signed
their names on the list of approval, for one or the other.
After the joint reign as _capi maestri_ of Giovanni di Lapo Ghino and
Francesco Talenti, came a varied line of master builders lasting for a
hundred years, so that it is impossible to say that any one man was
the architect of the Duomo. Between Arnolfo's first plan and the final
Italian Gothic development of the fifteenth century lies the whole
history of the development of art.
The next great _capo maestro_ after Talenti was Ambrogio of Lenzo or
Lanzo, near Como, one of the Campione school. His name is given in a
deed of February 3, 1363, as "Ambroxius filius magistri Guglielmi de
Champiglione." It is remarkable that an ancestor and namesake of this
"Ambroxius" was also written down as "filius Magistri Guglielmi" in
1130, two centuries earlier, when they were leading members of the
Campione school at Modena, and sculptured the façades of Modena and
Ferrara cathedrals; so our Ambrogio of Florence was one of the
distinguished aristocracy of the lodge, his family dating from its
cradle in Lombardy. From the deed which we quote we find that Ambrogio
graduated under his father, and made his first contract with Barna
Batis, then _Provveditore_ of the _Opera_ of the Duomo, to provide and
prepare the black marble necessary to the work, for every _braccio_ of
which he was to be paid six soldi eight denari. This is the original--
"_Archivio dell' Opera dell Duomo_, February 3,
1362.--Ambroxius filius magistri Guglielmi de Champiglione,
comitatus Mediolani, emancipatus a Domino magistro Guillielmo
patre suo, ut continere dixit publice manu ser Joannis
Arriglionis notarii de Champiglione, conduxit a Barna olim
Batis provisore Operis Sancte Reparate de Florentia, locante
vice et nomine operariorum ... ad faciendum et digrossandum
totum marmum nigrum quod erit necessarium dicto operi, hinc ad
unum annum proxime venturum, illarum mensurarum prout dicetur
eidem per capomagistros dicti operis. Et dictus Barna locavit
eidem die dictum marmum ad fovendum et digrossandum, et
promisit pro dicto opere eidem Ambroxio de quolibet brachio
dicti marmi dare eidem Ambroxio soldos sex et denarios octo f.
p., etc. Que omnia, etc."
Ambrogio or Ambrose remained many years in Florence. His name often
appears in council. In 1356 he was elected head architect of the
Duomo, and also of the restorations at the Baptistery. On April 4,
1384, when as an old man he attended a meeting to decide whether the
pilasters of the tribune were strong enough to support the dome, his
name is given as Ambrogio de Renzo. A marked instance of the effect of
twenty years among Florentine dialect, which has an inveterate habit
of mixing up l's and r's. His son, Giovanni d'Ambrogio di Lenzo, who
afterwards became _capo maestro_, was also in council, and Orcagna was
chosen umpire.
But between the reign of Ambrogio and that of his son we have various
changes in the directorship. In 1381, Giovanni, son of Stefano, called
Guazetta, became _capo maestro_ together with Giovanni Fetti, who was
also of the guild, and preparing first in Siena, and next at Florence,
for his future work in Lucca and Bologna. Giovanni Fetti designed and
made the fine "window towards the houses of the Cornacchini, under the
third arch of the nave."
Guazetta's peculiar line was laying foundations and devising
complicated scaffolding. He also made the presses of the sacristy. He
was perhaps not enough of a builder to hold the office of chief, for
in 1375 this pair resigned in favour of Francesco Salvetti and Taddeo
Ristori. Salvetti, however, very soon renounced office, preferring to
remain in the guild on a simple salary, rather than incur
responsibilities.[259]
Then Francesco Talenti's son Simone, who had by this time become a
_Magister_, was put in his place with Taddeo Ristori. Their reign
lasted till 1388, when Michele, son of Giovanni, son of Lapo, son of
Ghino, was elected. In his time the pilasters of the tribune were
begun.
In 1404 Ambrogio's son Giovanni was elected _capo maestro_. Here is
the part of the entry of the _Deliberation_, November 17,
1404--"Operaris ... elegerunt et nominaverunt et deputaverunt in caput
magister dicte opere Sancte Reparata providum virum Johannem Ambroxii,
etc. etc., cum salario florenum otto, pro quolibet mense cum
auctoritate, balia et potestate usitate et consueta."--_Delib._ xlix.
28.
Another deliberation, dated June 17, 1415, states that "Johannem
Ambroxii caput magister" shall give the order for the species and form
of the bricks for some special part.
Giovanni, the last of the Campione school whom we can register, was
deposed for old age, and Baptista Antoni elected in his stead. He was
probably the son of Antonio, the Grand Master mentioned above.
Giovanni had not always time to carry out his own designs. In 1408 we
find that Magister Niccolao, surnamed Pela, took the contract to carve
in marble the doorway near the chapel of the crucifix, which was
designed by "Johannem Ambroxii, caput magistrum." It is rich with
vines and other ornaments. Niccolao did not push the work, however,
and in May 1408 the _Opera_ decided that he owed the guild the sum of
twenty-five florins for breaking his contract.
The number of different minds each leading the works in his own
department is bewildering. The beautiful door called the Mandorla, so
rich and elegant in sculpture, which is often said to have been
executed by Jacopo della Quercia, was in reality the work of Nanni di
Antonio di Banco. The books of the _Opera_ register, on June 28, 1418,
a payment of twenty florins on account to Nanni for this doorway, and
in 1421 the last payment was made on the completion of the work. Nanni
was a favourite scholar of Donatello; he was a person of good birth,
who matriculated in the _Arte dei Maestri di Pietra_ on February 2,
1405, and proved his membership by sculpturing the four patron saints
of the Masonic Guild on Or San Michele.
We further find in this precious collection of documents that Magister
Jacopo di Lapo Cavacciani made a model for a shaft; that Nato di Cenni
and Jacopo di Polo were, in August 1357, engaged to make the bases of
the columns, and that time after time different Masters were called on
to make plans for chapels, windows, doors, etc.
Now we know the state of the building as it stood in this fourteenth
century, we realize that it was not left for centuries without a dome.
The old chronicler Buoninsegni, in his _Storia Florentina_, lib. iv.
p. 642, says--"A di venti di giugno 1380 si cominciarono a riempire et
murare i fondamenti della cupola di S. Maria del Fiore." Up till this
time the nave only seems to have been built.
On August 7 a meeting of _Magistri_ was called to consult on the
foundation for the cupola, and on November 12, 1380, there is a long
document commissioning "Bartolommeus Stefani, Johannes Mercati, and
Leonardus Cecchii, Magistri Florentini," to build the pilasters to
support the dome, which are to be of good stone and cement, and the
builders are cautioned not to work in times of frost or snow, etc.
etc. These pilasters caused much anxiety in the guild; in 1384
constant meetings were held about them. The Masters were afraid the
foundations of the one towards Via dei Servi were not firm; day after
day in July 1384 they met in scores to examine and report on it. Then
they called in the consuls of the _Art of Wool_, the _Operai_, and all
the chief men of the city; and everybody, excepting a certain Messer
Biagio Guasconi (who after all was not an architect), agreed that the
foundation of the pilaster was perfectly safe. However, good Messer
Biagio still held his own opinion and refused to sign approval.
From the steady way in which the work went on, it is certainly
possible and probable that there would in the natural course of the
work have been a dome to the cathedral even without Filippo
Brunelleschi. It was in the original plan, and the foundations and
pilasters were placed in readiness for it. There was much talk of the
difficulty of placing the framework of the scaffolding for it, but
there seems to have been no doubt that it would be accomplished. In
fact numbers of the Masters sent in plans for it at different times.
The first time that Brunellesco appears in the records is at a meeting
of consuls, _Opera_, and Masters, convened on November 10, 1404, to
consider a certain error in measurement committed by the _capo
maestro_, Giovanni di Ambrogio. The question turned on the placing of
the (_sprone_) brackets on the façade which interfered with the
windows.
It does not seem that Brunellesco belonged to the brotherhood. He is
merely mentioned as Filippo the goldworker, son of the notary
Brunelleschi (_Filippus ser Brunelleschi aurifex_). In no place,
either here or elsewhere, is he ever called _Magister_, and throughout
his life his every action was a protest against what he called "the
_Maestranze_" a term of contempt like "their Master-ships," which
Brunelleschi applied to the _Arte dei Maestri_. He had matriculated in
1398, when twenty-one years old, in the _Arte della Seta_, but as his
tastes were strongly artistic, and he refused to follow his father's
profession of lawyer, he enrolled himself in 1404 in the _Arte degli
Orafi_ (goldsmiths), in which so many painters were already eminent.
The goldsmiths or metal-sculptors, who seem to have seceded from the
Freemasons, were still in some measure colleagues of the Masonic
Guild, and their members were often called to vote or advise in the
councils of the _Opera_.
Thus we find Brunellesco as one of the _orafi_ called into council
about the construction of the brackets. He appears to have held office
as councillor in the _Opera_ for a year till 1405, when he was paid
off. He was probably one of the _Operai_ on the part of the city.
When in the famous competition of 1402 Brunellesco lost the commission
for the doors of the Baptistery, he left Florence in dudgeon, and with
his friend Donatello went to Rome. His studies of the methods of the
ancient Romans in making their great domes, suggested to him a way of
vindicating his _amour propre_ by defeating the whole guild of
"Masters" on their own ground. He had made architecture a special
study, and now thoroughly investigated the classic methods. He got to
the roof of the Pantheon, and made studies of the stone-work in the
ribs of the cupola, investigated the foundations, the supports, etc.,
and came back to Florence, where he let drop mysterious hints among
the influential members of his own trade company, and in the studios
of one or two artists, that even if the "_maestranze_ were to call
their Masters from France or Germany, and all parts of the world, none
of them would be able to make a dome equal to the one he could make."
The Masters of the _laborerium_ at length heard of these assertions,
and called on him to show his plans, which he declined to do.
Then the _Opera_, on August 19, 1418, announced a competition. Any
artist whatsoever who had made a model of the projected cupola was to
produce it, before the end of September, the model accepted to have a
prize of 200 gold florins. The date of decision was prolonged to
October, and then to December, when a number of models were sent in,
the competitors being Magister Giovanni di Ambrogio, C.M. of the
_laborerium_, Manno di Benincasa, Matteo di Leonardo, Vito da Pisa,
Lorenzo Ghiberti, all _Magistri_ of the Masonic Guild; Piero
d'Antonio, nicknamed Fannulla (do nothing), Piero di Santa Maria in
Monte, masters in wood. There were several models by members of the
civic company, the _Arte dei Scarpellini_ (stone-cutters); and last,
not least, a model in brick and mortar without scaffolding, made by
Brunellesco, Donatello, and Nanni di Banco,[260] so he was obliged
after all to show his design. This last won the prize, but the _Arte
dei Maestri_ had not evidently faith enough in one outside their ranks
to commence at once with the building. In Signor Cesare Guasti's
collection of archivial documents regarding the building of the Duomo,
we find that from October to December 23, 1418, several of the
Masters, including Magistro Aliosso, Mag. Andrea Berti Martignoni,
Mag. Paolo Bonaiuti, Cristofero di Simoni, and Giovanni Tuccio, were
receiving payment for building a model in masonry of Brunellesco's
plan for the cupola. I do not find that Brunellesco himself was
employed in this, the only payment to him being "50 lib. 15 soldi" for
his work on the lantern of the model, between July 11 and August 12,
1419; proving that he put the finishing touch, but that the Masters of
the guild themselves tested his design for the great dome before
finally adopting it. This brick model, which was built on the Piazza
del Duomo, remained there till 1430, when the _Opera_ ordered its
destruction. Guasti[261] gives in full this order, which is dated
January 23, 1430, and is in the usual low Latin of contemporary
documents. When the model was finished, the _Magistri_ of the guild
assembled on May 14, 1421, to hold council on it. There are entries of
expenses for a breakfast to the Masters, and for torch-bearers to
accompany them on their internal investigations. We find the same
ceremony of refreshment to the _Magistri_ who visited the works of the
real cupola in 1424, when six flasks of Trebbiano (the best Tuscan
wine) with fruit and bread were provided. In 1420 Brunellesco was
definitely commissioned to superintend the cupola, but even then the
_Magistri_ could not admit an outsider to full Masonic privileges. He
was not named _caput magister_, as one of the guild would have been,
but he and Ghiberti (whose model had been next best) were named
_provisori_ of the dome, while the Magister Baptista di Antonio was
_caput magister_ proper of the lodge. The terms of the contract were
that "the _provisori_ were to superintend the works, providing,
ordering, building, and causing to build, the cupola from beginning to
end, etc. etc."
At first both Ghiberti and Brunellesco drew three florins a month. The
head _Magister_, Baptista, had the usual salary of the guild as head
master.
The story of Brunellesco's restiveness at his old rival Ghiberti being
associated with him in carrying out a design peculiarly his own, and
how he tried to throw scorn on him, by locking up his plans and
feigning illness, thus leaving Ghiberti to work in the dark, is too
well known to need repetition here.[262] Perkins[263] is very hard on
Ghiberti's ignorance, which, he asserts, was so great that he was
obliged to resign because he could not do the work. But there are two
sides to every question. How could a man carry out a work designed
and begun by another without seeing his plans? Besides, Ghiberti's
resignation, or rather relinquishment of his work at the cupola just
then, was, I believe, due to the fact that he had a few months before
received a commission for the second bronze gates of the Baptistery,
and wanted his time free for them. This commission is dated January 2,
1425. His salary as _provisore_ of the cupola ceased for a few months
from June 28, 1425. The dates speak for themselves. He still, however,
held office, or returned to it with partial pay, for in 1428 we find a
decree of the _Opera_ which raises the salary of Brunellesco to 100
gold florins a year, while Ghiberti only draws his usual three florins
a month. But even then not an order is ever given in Brunellesco's own
name; every document and every receipt was signed by Baptista
d'Antonio, _caput magister_, and Filippo di Ser Brunellesco,
_provisore_.
And now let us see who were the underlings employed by Brunellesco.
Finding the workmen of the Florentine Lodge were disaffected, he got
ten Lombards, and shut out all the Florentines, till they humbly came
back, begging to be taken on again, which he did at a lower salary
than before.
The Lombard element was still strong in the guild. A certain _Maestro
di legno_, named Magister Antonio of Vercelli, invented a convenient
mode of drawing up weights into the cupola. The workmen had a kitchen
and eating-house up in the dome, so that they did not need to descend
in the middle of the day. In fact the _Opera_ made strict laws about
this.
In 1436 another competition of models for the lantern was proclaimed,
and again Brunellesco won the palm against Ghiberti and others. It
seems that when the commission was given to Brunellesco, the Masonic
Guild must have felt it _infra dig._ to make a non-member _capo
maestro_ of the dome. Consequently they matriculated him into the
fraternity. But with his jealousy of the _maestranze_ and
determination to show that one need not be a Freemason to build a
church, he ignored this membership and never paid his fees, on which
the Masters of the _laborerium_ sued him for debt, and he was
imprisoned. This did not suit the City Patrons of the _Opera_, who
were the all-powerful _Arte della Lana_, especially as Brunellesco's
_Arte della Seta_ was also on his side. A stormy meeting was held in
the _Opera_ on August 20, 1434, at which the civic party was too
strong for the _Maestri_. It was decreed that Brunellesco should be
liberated, and one of the _Arte dei Maestri_ was imprisoned, on the
plea of hindering public works![264]
After this triumph of independent architecture Brunellesco became in a
manner architect in chief to the city. He built the pretty Loggie of
the Foundling Hospital on Piazza della SS. Annunziata, and the Pazzi
Chapel at Sta. Croce, both of which Luca della Robbia adorned with his
beautiful blue and white reliefs. He erected the fine Palazzo
Quaratesi on Piazza Ognissanti, and the remarkably grand church of
Santo Spirito was after his death built from his designs.
Brunellesco's strike for independence appears to have given the
death-blow to the great Masonic Guild which, as it became more
unwieldy, had been slowly disintegrating. The local members in large
cities like Siena and Florence, becoming too strong for the original
Lombard element, had asserted their independence by forming other
guilds of a local nature, in which even the ancient quartette of
patron saints was forgotten. How long the lodge in Florence kept
together after Brunellesco's defiance I do not know, though its
educative influence certainly lingered on till Michael Angelo's time,
he being as all-round an artist as any _Magister_ of older days who
could build a church and decorate it too.
The _laborerium_ of the Florentine _Opera_ must, however, have been
closed by the time of Michael Angelo; for Lorenzo de' Medici had to
supplement it by giving up his garden in the Via Larga as a school of
sculpture, there being then no place where the art was taught. His
teaching, however, was a heritage from the ancient guild, for old
Bertoldo, scholar of Donatello, was the Master there, and the works of
the Masonic Brotherhood for two centuries, together with the classic
treasures collected by the Medici, were his models.
FOOTNOTES:
[236] (The five preceding artists were in the Council of July 1355.)
[237] Milanesi's _Vasari, Vita Niccolò e Giovanni Pisano_, vol. i. p.
388.
[238] The Cardinal died in 1290, so he must have given the commission
during his lifetime.
[239] In the register of deaths it occurs that Arnolfo's mother's name
was Perfetta.
[240] Gaye, _Carteggio degli Artisti_, vol. i. pp. 445, 446.
[241] We find these same men, Alberto and Enrico his kinsman,
sculpturing in San Pietro at Bologna in 1285.
[242] Baldinucci, tom. iv. p. 96.
[243] Milanesi, vol. i. p. 283.
[244] _La Metropolitana Fiorentina Illustrata_, p. 54. Firenze, Molini
e Co., 1820.
[245] _La Metropolitana Fiorentina Illustrata_, p. 59. Firenze, Molini
e Co.
[246] Francesco Talenti, head of the _laborerium_.
[247] Cesare Guasti, _Santa Maria del Fiore_, p. 77.
[248] Here is another office in the organization of the guild which we
have not hitherto met with. The _Regolatori_ must have formed the
economical council, to control expenses.
[249] Carta 12 of _Antica Necrologia di Santa Reparata_ in the
Archives of the Opera del Duomo.
Q. Davanzato f Alfieri.
Q. Cambio chiavaiuolo.
Q. Magister Arnolfus de l'opera di Santa Reparata MCCCX.
[250] Guasti, _Santa Maria del Fiore_, p. 29.
[251] _Cronaca di Lorenzo Ghiberti MS._ in the Magliabecchian Library,
Florence.--"Le prime storie che sono all'edificio, furono di sua mano
scolpite e disegnate. Nella mia età vidi provvedimenti di sua mano, di
dette istorie egregissimamente disegnati."
[252] "Compose et ordinò Giotto il campanile di marmo di Santa
Reparata di Firenze, notabile campanile et di gran costo. Commisevi
due errori: l'uno che non ebbe ceppo da piè, l'altro che fu stretto:
posesene tanto dolore al cuore ch'egli, si dice, ne infermò et
morissene."--_Commento alla Divina Commedia d'Anonimo fiorentino del
secolo XIV._, vol. ii. p. 188. Bologna, 1868.
[253] "Ac etiam cum magistro Andrea, majore magistro dicte opere:
facto prius et oblento partito inter eos ad fabas nigras et albas."
Andrea was a scholar of Giovanni Pisano, and had worked with him at
Pisa and Siena, where he is mentioned as _famulus Magistri Johannis_.
[254] "A Franciescho Talenti e al compagno da Firenze tre fiorini
d'oro per lo consiglio che diederono del Duomo nuovo."--Milanesi,
_Documenti per l' Arte Senese, Aprile 1336_.
[255] Milanesi, _Documenti per la Storia dell' Arte Senese_, tom. i.
p. 200.
[256] Ristoro had a son, Taddeo di Ristori, who was _capo maestro_ of
the Loggia dei Lanzi in 1376.
[257] This and many other deliberations at the same epoch put it
beyond a doubt that Arnolfo's church was considerably changed in form,
as time went on, if not rebuilt entirely.
[258] "Andreas Cionis, vocatus Arcagnolus, pictor populi Sancti
Michaelis Visdominis, juravit et promisit dicte arte, pro quo
fideiussit Nerius Fioravantis Magister in MCCCLII, indictione sexta,
die XX ottubris" (_sic_).--Milanesi's Vasari, _Vita di Andrea
Orcagna_.
[259] Extract from the books of the _Opera_, 1372, December
13--"Francischus Salvetti de sua propria et spontanea voluntæ qui erat
caput magister dicti operis Sancte Reparate renuntiat et repudiat
dicto officio, et quot non vult confirmus esse caput magistro in
presentæ operarorum."
[260] Milanesi, _Vasari, Vita Filippo Brunelleschi_, vol. ii. p. 351,
note.
[261] Cesare Guasti, _La Cupola di Santa Maria del Fiore_, pp. 34, 35.
[262] See _Sculpture, Renaissance and Modern_, pp. 63, 64, published
by Messrs. Sampson Low and Marston.
[263] _Tuscan Sculptors_, Vol. I. chap. v. p. 135.
[264] Milanesi's _Vasari, Vita di Filippo Brunellesco_, vol. ii. p.
362, notes. See also Cesare Guasti, _La Cupola di Santa Maria del
Fiore_, p. 54, document 116.