Runes.
Before dealing with the Norse and Danish antiquities of Lancashire,
of which we have some remains in the form of sculptured stones, and
ancient crosses, it would be profitable to inquire into the origin
and development of that mysterious form of letters known as Runes or
Runic. How many of the thousands who annually visit the Isle of Man are
aware that the island contains a veritable museum of Runic historical
remains? A brief survey of these inscriptions, which have yielded
definite results, having been deciphered for us by eminent scholars,
will help us to understand the nature of those to be found in our own
county.
We are told by Dr. Wägner that Runes were mysterious signs. The word
Rune is derived from rûna, a secret. The form of the writing would
appear to be copied from the alphabet of the Phoenicians. The Runes
were looked upon, for many reasons, as full of mystery and supernatural
power. In the fourth century Ulphilas made a new alphabet for the
Goths by uniting the form of the Greek letters to the Runic alphabet,
consisting of twenty-five letters, which was nearly related to that of
the Anglo-Saxons. The Runes gradually died out as Christianity spread,
and the Roman alphabet was introduced in the place of the old Germanic
letters. The Runes appear to have served less as a mode of writing than
as a help to memory, and were principally used to note down a train of
thought, to preserve wise sayings and prophecies, and the remembrance
of particular deeds and memorable occurrences.
Tacitus informs us that it was the custom to cut beech twigs into small
pieces, and then throw them on a cloth, which had been previously
spread out for the purpose, and afterwards to read future events by
means of the signs accidentally formed by the bits of wood as they lay
in the cloth.
In his catalogue of Runic inscriptions found on Manx crosses, Kermode
says that "of the sculptors' names which appear all are Norse. Out
of a total of forty-four names, to whom these crosses were erected,
thirty-two are those of men, eight of women, and four are nicknames.
Of men, nineteen names are Norse, nine Celtic, three doubtful, and one
Pictish." This proves the predominance of Norse and Danish chiefs to
whom these monuments were erected. Runes are simply the characters in
which these inscriptions are carved, and have nothing to do with the
language, which in the Manx inscriptions is Scandinavian of the 12th
Century.
To speak of a stone which bears an inscription in Runes as a Runic
stone is as though we should call a modern tombstone a Roman stone
because the inscription is carved in Roman capitals. Canon Taylor
traces the origin of Runes to a Greek source, namely, the Thracian or
second Ionian alphabet, which, through the intercourse of the Greek
colonists at the mouth of the Danube with the Goths south of the
Baltic, was introduced in a modified form into Northern Europe, and had
become established as a Runic "Futhork" as early as the Christian era.
The main stages of development are classified by Canon Taylor as the
Gothic, the Anglican, and the Scandinavian.
The Rune consists of a stem with the twigs or letters falling from
left or right. This is the most common form to be found, allowing for
difference of workmanship, of material, and space. The progress in the
development of the Rune may be observed from the most simple plait
or twist, to the most complex and beautiful geometric, and to the
zoomorphic. The latter has the striking features of birds and beasts of
the chase, and also of men, many being realistic; and except the latter
are well drawn. The forms of the men are sometimes found with heads of
birds or wings. In addition to decorative work we find on three of the
cross slabs illustrations from the old Norse sagas. On a large cross
at Braddan is a representation of Daniel in the lion's den; and at
Bride, on a slab, is a mediæval carving of the fall of Adam, in which
the serpent is absent. Both Pagan and Christian emblems derive their
ornamentation from the same source, "basket work."
Long after the introduction of Christianity we find the Pagan symbols
mixed up in strange devices on the same stones, which were erected as
Christian monuments. In the "Lady of the Lake," Sir Walter Scott gives
an account of the famous fiery cross formed of twigs.
"The grisly priest, with murmuring prayer,
A slender crosslet framed with care,
A cubit's length in measure due;
The shaft and limbs were rods of yew."
"The cross, thus formed, he held on high,
With wasted hand and haggard eye."
Basketmaking is the parent of all modern textile art, and no other
industry is so independent of tools. It is the humble parent of the
modern production of the loom, and the most elaborate cloth is but the
development of the simple wattle work of rude savages. Plaiting rushes
is still the earliest amusement of children, the patterns of which are
sometimes identical with the designs engraved by our earliest ancestors
on their sculptured stones. Interlaced ornament is to be met with on
ancient stones and crosses all over our islands. Ancient pottery also
shows that the earliest form of ornament was taken from basket designs.
The Lough Derg pilgrim sought a cross made of interwoven twigs,
standing upon a heap of stones, at the east end of an old church. This
was known as St. Patrick's Altar. This is recorded by a certain Lord
Dillon in 1630, who visited the island known as St. Patrick's Purgatory
on the Lough Derg, in Ireland. The wicker cross retained its grasp upon
the superstitious feelings of the people after the suppression at the
Reformation. He says of this miserable little islet that the tenant
paid a yearly rent of £300, derived from a small toll of sixpence
charged at the ferry. This was probably the last of the innumerable
crosses of the same wicker and twigs. (Lieut.-Col. French, Bolton.)
RUNIC ALMANACS.
When the northern nations were converted to Christianity the old
Pagan Festivals were changed to Christian holidays, and the old Pagan
divinities were replaced by Christian Saints. The faith placed in the
early deities was transferred to the latter. As certain deities had
formerly been supposed to exercise influence over the weather and the
crops; so the days dedicated to them, were now dedicated to certain
Saints.
The days thus dedicated were called Mark-days, and as it may be
supposed it became the office of the Clergy to keep account of the time
and to calculate when the various holidays would occur.
Owing to the fact that many Christian feasts are what are called
movable, that is, are not fixed to a certain date but depend on Easter,
the reckoning was more difficult for the laity than it had been in
Pagan times.
In those days the fixed holidays could be easily remembered. An
ordinary man without knowing how to read or write could keep a list of
them by cutting marks or notches on strips of wood.
The successors of these are called Messe, and Prim Staves. The Messe
staves are the more simple--_Messe-daeg_ means Mass day, and the stave
only denoted such days. The Prim stave contained besides the marks
for Sundays and the moon's changes. Hence their name from Prima-Luna,
or first full moon after the equinox. The Messe-daeg staves are
frequently met with. They consist generally of flat pieces of wood
about a yard or an ell long, two inches wide, and half an inch thick,
and have frequently a handle, giving them the appearance of a wooden
sword. The flat side is divided into two unequal portions by a line
running lengthways. In the narrow part, the days are notched at equal
distances, half the year on each side, or 182 marks on one side and 183
on the other. In the wider space and connected with the days are the
signs for those which are to be particularly observed: on the edges the
weeks are indicated. The marks for the days do not run from January
to July and from July to December, but on the winter side (Vetr-leid)
from October 14 to April 13, and in the summer side (Somar-leid) from
April 14 to October 13. The signs partly refer to the weather, partly
to husbandry, and partly the legends of the Saints. Seldom are two
staves formed exactly alike. Not only do the signs vary but the days
themselves. Nor are they always flat, but sometimes square, _i.e._,
with four equal sides: when of the latter shape they are called clogs,
or clog almanacs.
They are called Cloggs, _i.e._, Logg, Almanacks = Al-mon-aght, viz.,
the regard or observation of all the Moons, because by means of these
squared sticks, says Verstegan, they could certainly tell when the new
Moons, full Moons, or other changes should happen, and consequently
Easter and the other movable feasts. They are called by the Danes
Rim-stocks, not only because the Dominical letters were anciently
expressed on them in Runic characters, but also because the word Rimur
anciently signified a Calendar. By the Norwegians with whom they are
still in use, they are called Prim-staves, and for this reason, the
principal and most useful thing inscribed on them being the prime or
golden number, whence the changes of the moon are understood, and also
as they were used as walking sticks, they were most properly called
Prim-staves.
The origin of these Runic or Clog-calendars was Danish (vide Mr. J. W.
Bradley, M.A., Salt Library, Stafford). They were unknown in the South,
and only known by certain gentry in the North. They are quite unknown
in Ireland and Scotland, and are only known from the few examples
preserved in the Museums.
Owing to the changes of custom in modern times these wooden perpetual
almanacs have become quite superseded by the printed annuals.
The inscriptions read proceeding from the right hand side of the
notches, are marks or symbols of the festivals expressed in a kind of
hieroglyphic manner, pointing out the characteristics of the Saints,
against whose festivals they are placed, others the manner of their
Martyrdom; others some remarkable fact in their lives; or to the work
or sport of the time when the feasts were kept.
Thus on January 13 the Feast of St. Hiliary is denoted by a Cross or
Crozier, the badge of a Bishop.
EXPLANATION OF THE CLOG ALMANAC.
The edges of the staff are notched chiefly with simple angular
indentations but occasionally with other marks to denote the date of
certain special Festivals.
[Illustration]
Jan. 1.--The Feast of the Circumcision. Sometimes a circle.
Jan. 2, 3, 4, 5.--Ordinary days.
Jan. 6.--The Feast of the Epiphany. Twelfth day. In some examples
the symbol is a star.
Jan. 7.--Ordinary day.
Jan. 8-12.--The first day of the second week is shown by a larger
notch.
Jan. 13.--Feast of St. Hilary. Bishop of Poictiers, with double
cross.
Jan. 14.--Ordinary day.
Jan. 15, 16.--First day of third week.
Jan. 17.--Feast of St. Anthony. Patron Saint of Feeders of Swine.
This is the Rune for M.
Jan. 18.--F. of St. Prisca, A.D. 278. Not noticed.
Jan. 20.--F. of S. Fabian. Not noticed. F. of S. Sebastian. Not
noticed.
Jan. 21.--F. of S. Agnes.
Jan. 22.--F. of S. Vincent. Not noticed.
Jan. 25.--Conversion of St. Paul. Symbol of decapitation.
No other Saints days are noticed in Jan.
Feb. 2.--Candlemas. Purification of Virgin Mary.
Feb. 3.--St. Blaise, bishop and martyr. The Patron Saint of
Woolcombers. Bp. Sebasti. Armenia. A.D. 316.
Feb. 4.--St. Gilbert. Not noticed.
Feb. 5.--St. Agatha. Palermo. Patroness of Chaste Virgins.
Feb. 6.--St. Dorothea. Not noticed.
Feb. 9.--St. Apolmia. A.D. 249. Alexandria.
Feb. 14.--St. Valentine (historian). M. A.D. 271. Plot gives
Feb. 16.--St. Gregory. Pope X. A.D. 1276.
Feb. 20, 22, 23.--St. Mildred, St. Millburgh, sisters.
Feb. 24.--St. Matthias, Apostle.
Mar. 1.--St. David, Bishop. Symbol a harp. Patron Saint of Wales,
A.D. 544.
Mar. 2.--St. Chad. A.D. 672.
Mar. 12.--St. Gregory the Great, A.D. 604.
Mar. 17.--S. Patrick, Patron of Ireland.
Mar. 20.--S. Cuthbert. Not noticed.
Mar. 21.--S. Benedict. Not noticed, A.D. 543.
Mar. 25.--Feast of Annunciation. Blessed Virgin Mary. Usual
symbol heart.
These complete one edge of the staff.
Thus each edge contains three months or one quarter of the year.
Turning the staff over towards the reader who holds the loop or ring in
the right hand.
April 1.--All Fools Day. Custom. Not noticed. S. Hugh. A.D. 1132.
April 2, 3.--S. Francis of Paula, A.D. 1508. S. Richard, Bishop
of Chichester, A.D. 1262.
April 4.--St. Isidore, Bishop of Seville.
April 5.--St. Vincent. Terrer Valentia. 1419.
April 9.--S. Mary of Egypt. Not noticed.
April 11.--St. Gultitae, Abbot of Croyland.
April 19.--St. Ælphege, Archbishop of Canterbury. 1012.
April 23.--St. George, Patron Saint of England. Of Garter legend.
April 25.--St. Mark. Alexandria. Apostle and Evangelist.
April 30.--St. Catherine of Siena.
May 1.--May Day. St. Philip and St. James the Less.
May 3.--Invention or discovery of the Holy Cross.
May 5.--St. Hilary of Arles. A.D. 449.
May 7.--St. John Beverlev. A.D. 721.
May 8.--St. Michael Archangel.
May 19.--St. Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury. A.D. 988.
June 8.--St. William, Archbishop of York. 1144. Note the W. on
the line.
June 11.--St. Barnabas, Apostle. Commencement of the Hay harvest,
hence the rake.
June 24.--Nativity of John Baptist.
Turnover staff for rest of June.
June 29.--St. Peter, symbol of key.
July 2.--Visitation of S. Elizabeth.
July 7.--S. Ethelburgh.
July 15.--S. Swithin, symbol as A.D. 862. Bishop of Winchester.
Shower of rain.
July 20.--St. Margaret.
July 22.--St. Mary Magdalene.
July 25.--St. James, Apostle the Great.
July 26.--St. Anne.
August 1.--Lammas Day.
August 5.--St. Oswald.
August 10.--St. Lawrence.
August 15.--Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
August 24.--St. Bartholomew.
August 29.--St. John Baptist.
Sept. 1.--St. Giles. Patron of Hospitals.
Sept. 6.--
Sept. 8.--Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
Sept. 14.--Exaltation of the Cross.
Sept. 21.--St. Matthew, Apostle.
Sept. 29.--Feast of S. Michael the Archangel.
Oct. 9.--St. Denis.
Oct. 13.--St. Edward the Confessor.
Oct. 18.--St. Luke the Evangelist.
Oct. 25.--St. Crispin, Patron of Shoemakers.
Oct. 28.--St. Simon and St. Jude.
Nov. 1.--All Saints.
Nov. 2.--All Souls.
Nov. 6.--St. Leonard.
Nov. 11.--St. Martin. Bishop of Tours, A.D. 397.
Nov. 17.--S. Hugh. Bishop of Lincoln, A.D. 1200.
Nov. 20.--St. Edmund, King of East Anglia.
Nov. 23.--St. Clement.
Nov. 25.--St. Catherine of Alexandria.
Nov. 30.--St. Andrew, Apostle.
Dec. 6.--St. Nicholas.
Dec. 8.--Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
Dec. 13.--St. Lucia. Patroness Saint of diseases of the eye.
Dec. 21.--St. Thomas, Apostle. Shortest day.
Plot 25.--Christmas Day.
Plot 26.--St. Stephen, First Martyr.
Plot 27.--St. John the Evangelist.
Plot 28.--Innocents.
Plot 29.--St. Thomas of Canterbury, 1171.
Plot 31.--St. Sylvester, Pope 335. Made a general Festival 1227.
The more ancient almanac called Runic Primitare, so named from the
Prima-luna or new moon which gave the appellation of Prime to the Lunar
or Golden Number, so called because the Number was marked in gold on
the stave. The Rim Stocks of Denmark so called from Rim, a calendar and
stock a staff. The marks called Runic characters were supposed to have
magical powers and so were regarded with dread by the Christians and
were often destroyed by the priests and converts to Christianity.
They were derived from rude imitations of the Greek letters. Two of
these staves now in the Museum at Copenhagen are 4 feet 8-1/2 inches
and 3 feet 8 inches long respectively. They are hand carved and not
in any sense made by machinery. This accounts from them being rarely
alike, and often very different from one another.
The Sun in his annual career returns to the same point in the Zodiac in
365 days, 6 hours, nearly. The Moon who is really the month maker, as
the Sun is the year maker, does 12 of her monthly revolutions in 354
days. So that a lunar year is 11 days shorter than the solar, supposing
both to start from the same date. The actual lunar month contains about
29-1/2 days. Therefore in order to balance the two reckonings, it was
agreed at a convention of Scientist Christians of Alexandria in the
year A.D. 323, two years previous to the Council of Nice, to make the
distances between the new moon alternately 29 and 30 days, and to place
the golden number accordingly. Now these Egyptian scholars observed
that the new moon nearest the vernal Equinox in 323 was on the 27th day
of the Egyptian month Phauranoth, corresponding with our 23rd of March,
so the cycle was commenced on this day. This is the reason why the
golden number 1 is placed against it, 29 days from this brought them
to the 21st April, and 30 days from this to the 21st May, and so on
through the year.
RUNIC CALENDAR.
The explanatory engraving of the Calendar shows the year begins on the
23rd December. That this date is correctly given for the first day of
the year is proved by the agreement between the Saints days and the
days of the month on which they fall and the Christian Sunday Letters.
In thus beginning the year this Calendar exhibits a rare peculiarity.
No other Runic Calendar begins the year in the same manner, while
numbers could be shown which begin the year at Yuletide, commencing on
the 25th December.
Of the two modes of beginning it there is no question that the one here
exhibited is the genuine heathen while the other is genuine Christian.
It is worth noticing that as Winter takes precedence of Summer in the
sense of a year: so night takes precedence of day generally in the
sense of a civil day of 24 hours in old Icelandic writers, a manner of
speech which to this day is far from having gone out of use.
Considering the heathen tradition preserved in this Calendar in
the number of days given to the year and in the date given to the
commencement of the year, in which it stands unique, in the fact that
the interval between 1230 and 1300, _i.e._, out of 160 years rich in
famous local and famous general Saints, not one should be recorded
here: that Saints of universal adoration in the Catholic Church, such
as St. Thomas of Canterbury, St. Benedict, and others, should not have
a place here: we cannot escape referring it to an age when it may be
fairly supposed that these heathen traditions were still believed in by
at least a considerable number of the community.
Anterior to 1230 it cannot be, long posterior to that date it can
scarcely be. That it must be a layman's Calendar, is shown because
it exhibits no golden numbers, and gives consequently no clue to
the Paschal cycle or movable feasts. It is a very valuable piece of
antiquity and ought to be well taken care of.
On 2nd February were anciently observed all over the Pagan north
certain rites connected with the worship of fire. In some places the
toast or bumper of the fire was drunk by the whole family kneeling
round the fire, who at the same time offered grain or beer to the
flames on the hearth. This was the so-called Eldborgs-skäl, the toast
of fire salvage, a toast which was meant to avert disaster by fire for
the coming year.
Fire and Sun worship mingled together, no doubt in observance of this
feast: for where it was most religiously observed amongst the Swedes
it was called Freysblôt and was a great event. In early Christian
times only wax candles which had received the blessing of the
priest, were burnt in the houses of the people, in the evening. Hence
Candlemas,--see illustration in Stephens' Scandinavian Monuments. From
a remarkable treatise by Eirikr Magnusson, M.A., on a Runic Calendar
found in Lapland in 1866, bearing English Runes. (Cambridge Antiq. Soc.
Communications, Vol. X., No. 1, 1877.)
[Illustration]
THIS ENGLISH (?) OR NORWEGIAN RUNIC CALENDAR IS DATED ABOUT A.D.
1000-1100.
What distinguishes this piece is that seemingly from its great age
and its having been _made in England_, it has preserved in the outer
or lower lines several of _the olden Runes_. These are the "Notae
Distortae" spoken of by Worm. Some of these as we can plainly see are
provincial _English_ varieties of the old northern Runes.
The Calendar before us is of bone, made from the jaw-bone of the
porpoise. We know nothing of its history. Worm says, "Probably to this
class must be assigned the peculiar Calendar carved on a concave bone,
part of the jaw-bone of some large fish." Although it shows three rows
of marks the signs of Festivals, the Solar Cycle and the Lunar Cycle,
this last is here very imperfect and has even some distorted marks as
we see in the engraving.
Each side, the concave as well as the convex, bears near the edge
its girdling three rows of marks, so that every series comprehends a
quarter of a year, beginning with the day of Saint Calixtus. As Worm
has only given one side of this curious Rune-blade, we cannot know the
peculiarities of the other half, which contained the Solar Cycle, and
the three sign lines for two quarters.
On the side given, the Runes on the right hand are reversed and read
from top to bottom; those on the left hand are not retrograde. It may
often have been carried on the person, being only 18 inches long. The
clog calendars range in length from 3 to 4 feet, to as many inches.
Whenever we light upon any kind of _Runic_ pieces, we are at once
confined _to the north_, Scandinavia and England. Though so numerous in
the Northern lands, no Runic Calendar has ever yet been found in any
Saxon or German province, except a couple bought or brought by modern
travellers, as curiosities from Scandinavia.
Stephens says this whole class of Antiquities has never yet been
properly treated. It offers work for one man's labours during a long
time and many journeys. It would produce a rich harvest as to the signs
and symbols, and Runes as modified by local use and clannish custom.
All the symbol marks should be treated in parallel groups. The various
and often peculiar Runes should be carefully collected and elucidated.
All this is well worthy of a competent Rune-Smith, Computist, and
Ecclesiologist. On many of the _old_ Runic Calendars, especially in
Sweden, we find a "_lake_" or game long famous all over Europe, but
now mostly known to children, called "the Lake" or game of Saint Peter.
This is an ingenious way of so placing 30 persons, that we may save
one half from death or imprisonment, by taking out each ninth man as a
victim, till only one half the original number is left. These 15 are
thus all rescued. Of course the man thus taken must not be counted a
second time.
Formerly the favoured 15 were called Christians and the other Jews.
Carving this in one line, we get the marks so often found on Rune-clogs:
xxxx|||||xx|xxx|x||xx|||x||xx|
The story about it is this: Saint Peter is said to have been at sea
in a ship in which were 30 persons, the one half Christians and the
other half Jews. But a storm arose so furious that the vessel had to be
lightened, and it was resolved to throw overboard half the crew. Saint
Peter then ranged them in the order we see, every ninth man was taken
out. The crosses betoken the Christians and the strokes the Jews. In
this way all the Jews were cast into the deep while all the Christians
remained. Herewith the old were wont to amuse themselves.
_Folk-lore of children in rhyme and ritual._ The child is surrounded by
an ancient circle of ritualism and custom. Visitors to see the infant
must take it a threefold gift. In some districts in Yorkshire the
conditions are a little tea, sugar, and oven-cake. Another Yorkshire
practice is to take an egg, some salt, and a piece of silver. The child
must not be brought downstairs to see the visitor, for to bring it
downstairs would be to give it a start in life in the wrong direction.
The form of this idea is to be found in certain (Japanese) customs. The
child's finger-nails must not be cut with scissors, for iron had such
close association with witchcraft. The nails must be bitten off with
the teeth. This practice survives in some adults, much to the disgust
of their friends.
Of children's games, that known as "Hopscotch" was originally a
religious rite practised at funerals. It was symbolical of the passage
of the soul from the body to heaven or the other place to which the
ancients gave various names. The pattern which is drawn for the purpose
of this game has been found on the floor of the Roman Forum.
Another game called "Cat's Cradle" was played by the North American
Indians, and has recently found on an island north of Australia. When
children could not play on account of the rain they recited a little
rhyme which is still known to-day by the people of Austria and in the
wilds of Asia. The game of "Ring o' Roses" is the survival of an old
incantation addressed to the Corn Spirit. When the wind rippled across
the cornfield the ancient harvesters thought the corn god was passing
by, and would recite the old rhyme, closing with the words, "Hark the
cry! hark the cry! all fall down!" Sometimes the corn spirit was
supposed to become incarnated in the form of a cow, hence the line in
the nursery jingle, "Boy Blue! the cow's in the corn." When the boy
donned his first pair of breeches he must pass through a ritual. He
must be nipped. The significance of the nip was a test to see whether
the boy in the new breeches was the same boy, or whether he had been
changed by the fairies or evil spirits. This idea of a change by evil
spirits might seem far-fetched, but so recently as 1898, in the records
of the Irish courts there was a case in which an Irishman was tried
for accusing his wife of not being the same person as when he married
her, and of the woman being branded in consequence. Superstitions as
to the cure of certain childish complaints survive in the cure for
whooping cough, to take the sufferer "over t' watter." That is the only
medicinal use of the river Aire, near Leeds.
Memorials