[1] By the Greek and Roman geographers Egypt was usually assigned to
Libya (Africa), but by some early writers the Nile was thought to
mark the division between Libya and Asia. The name occurs in Homer as
[Greek: Aigyptos], but is of doubtful origin.
[2] A vivid description of Cairo during the prevalence of plague in
1835 will be found in A. W. Kinglake's _Eothen_.
[3] A _kantar_ equals 99 lb.
[4] To the ministry of public instruction was added in 1906 a
department of agriculture and technical instruction.
[5] The place of publication is London unless otherwise stated.
[6] The figures of the debt are always given in L sterling. The
budget figures are in LE. (pounds Egyptian), equal to L1, 0s. 6d.
[7] _Egypt_, No. 1 (1905), p. 20.
[8] Similar mortality, though on a smaller scale, recurred in 1889,
when Sudanese battalions coming from Suakin were detained temporarily
in Cairo.
[9] Formerly transcribed _hau_ or "heap"-problems.
[10] Clepsydras inscribed in hieroglyphic are found soon after the
Macedonian conquest.
[11] Annual reports of the progress of the work are printed in the
_Sitzungsberichte_ of the Berlin Academy of Sciences; see also Erman,
_Zur agyptischen Sprachforschung_, ib. for 1907, p. 400, showing the
general trend of the results.
[12] In the temple of Philae, where the worship of Isis was permitted
to continue till the reign of Justinian, Brugsch found demotic
inscriptions with dates to the end of the 5th century.
[13] The Arabic dialects, which gradually displaced Coptic as
Mahommedanism supplanted Christianity, adopted but few words of the
old native stock.
[14] In the articles referring to matters of Egyptology in this
edition, Graecized forms of Old Egyptian names, where they exist, are
commonly employed; in other cases names are rendered by their actual
equivalents in Coptic or by analogous forms. Failing all such means,
recourse is had to the usual conventional renderings of hieroglyphic
spelling, a more precise transcription of the consonants in the
latter being sometimes added.
[15] It seems that "acrophony" (giving to a sign the value of the
first letter of its name) was indulged in only by priests of the
latest age, inventing fantastic modes of writing their "vain
repetitions" on the temple walls.
[16] In the prehistoric age when absolute dating is out of reach a
"sequence dating" by means of the sequence of types in pottery,
tools, &c., has been proposed in Petrie's _Diospolis Parva_, pp. 4 et
sqq. The earliest prehistoric graves yet known are placed at S.D. 30,
and shortly before S.D. 80 the period of the first historic dynasty
is entered.
[17] Ten-day periods as subdivisions of the month can be traced as
far back as the Middle Kingdom. The day consisted of twenty-four
hours, twelve of day (counted from sunrise to sunset) and twelve of
night; it began at sunrise.
[18] For the "sequence" dating (S.D.) used by archaeologists for the
prehistoric period see above (S Art and Archaeology, ad init. note).
[19] Reisner (_Early Dynastic Cemeteries_, p. 126), from his work in
the prehistoric cemeteries, believes that Egypt was too uncivilized
at that early date to have performed this scientific feat.
[20] The history of Hatshepsut has been very obscure, and the
mutilations of her cartouches have been variously accounted for.
Recent discoveries by M. Legrain at Karnak and Prof. Petrie at Sinai
have limited the field of conjecture. The writer has followed M.
Naville's guidance in his biography of the queen (in T. M. Davis,
_The Tomb of Hatshopsitu_, London, 1906, pp. 1 et seq.), made with
very full knowledge of the complicated data.
[21] This, it may be remarked, is the time vaguely represented by the
Dodecarchy of Herodotus.
[22] Khosrev Pasha afterwards filled several of the highest offices
at Constantinople. He died on the 1st of February 1855. He was a
bigot of the old school, strongly opposed to the influences of
Western civilization, and consequently to the assistance of France
and Great Britain in the Crimean War.
[23] The work was carried out under the supervision of the Frenchman,
Colonel Seve, who had turned Mahommedan and was known in Islam as
Suleiman Pasha. The effectiveness of the new force was first tried in
the suppression of a revolt of the Albanians in Cairo (1823) by six
disciplined Sudanese regiments; after which Mehemet Ali was no more
troubled with military _emeutes_.
[24] THE DYNASTY OF MEHEMET ALI.
(i.) Mehemet Ali,
b. 1769, d. 1849.
|
+-------------+----------+---+-------+--------------+-------------+
| | | | | |
(ii.) Ibrahim, Tusun, Ismail, (iv.) Said, Abdul Halim, Mehemet Ali,
b. 1789, b. 1796, b. 1798, b. 1823, b. 1831, the Younger,
d. 1848. d. 1816. d. 1822. d. 1863. d. 1894. and other
| | | children.
| (iii.) Abbas I., Tusun
| b. 1813, d. 1854. d. 1876.
| |
| El Hami.
| |
| Amina (married the Khedive Tewfik).
|
+---+-----------+--------------------+
| | |
Ahmed, (v.) Ismail (Khedive), Mustapha Fazil,
d. 1858. b. 1830, d. 1895. d. 1875.
|
+--+-------------+-------------+------------+
| | | |
(vi.) Tewfik, Hussein Kamil. Hassan. 8 other children.
b. 1853, d. 1892.
|
+------------------+------------+
| | |
(vii.) Abbas II., Mehemet Ali. 2 daughters.
b. 1874.
|
+----------------+--------------+
| | |
Mahommed Abdul, Abdul Kader, 4 daughters.
b. 1890. b. 1902.
[25] Part of this money was devoted to an expedition sent against
Abyssinia in 1876 to avenge losses sustained in the previous year.
The new campaign was, however, equally unsuccessful.
[26] Lord Cromer, writing in 1905, declared that the movement "was,
in its essence, a genuine revolt against misgovernment," and "was not
essentially anti-European" (vide _Egypt No. 1_, 1905, p. 2).
[27] Except in so far as it was necessary to call out men to guard
the banks of the Nile in the season of high flood.
[28] The Egyptians keep large numbers of pigeons, which are allowed
to be shot only by permission of the village omdeh (head-man). After
the occurrence here related, officers were prohibited from shooting
pigeons in any circumstances.
[29] On the 8th of January 1908, the anniversary of the khedive's
accession, the whole of the Denshawai prisoners were pardoned and
released. For the Denshawai incident see the British parliamentary
papers, _Egypt No. 3_ and _Egypt No. 4_ of 1906.
[30] See _Egypt No. 2_ (1906), Correspondence respecting the
Turco-Egyptian Frontier in the Sinai Peninsula (with a map).
EHRENBERG, CHRISTIAN GOTTFRIED (1795-1876), German naturalist, was born
at Delitzsch in Saxony on the 19th of April 1795. After studying at
Leipzig and Berlin, where he took the degree of doctor of medicine in
1818, he was appointed professor of medicine in the university of Berlin
(1827). Meanwhile in 1820 he was engaged in a scientific exploration
conducted by General von Minutoli in Egypt. They investigated parts of
the Libyan desert, the Nile valley and the northern coasts of the Red
Sea, where Ehrenberg made a special study of the corals. Subsequently
parts of Syria, Arabia and Abyssinia were examined. Some results of
these travels and of the important collections that had been made were
reported on by Humboldt in 1826; and afterwards Ehrenberg was enabled to
bring out two volumes _Symbolae physicae_ (1828-1834), in which many
particulars of the mammals, birds, insects, &c., were made public. Other
observations were communicated to scientific societies. In 1829 he
accompanied Humboldt through eastern Russia to the Chinese frontier. On
his return he gave his attention to microscopical researches. These had
an important bearing on some of the infusorial earths used for polishing
and other economic purposes; they added, moreover, largely to our
knowledge of the microscopic organisms of certain geological formations,
especially of the chalk, and of the modern marine and freshwater
accumulations. Until Ehrenberg took up the study it was not known that
considerable masses of rock were composed of minute forms of animals or
plants. He demonstrated also that the phosphorescence of the sea was due
to organisms. He continued until late in life to investigate the
microscopic organisms of the deep sea and of various geological
formations. He died in Berlin on the 27th of June 1876.
PUBLICATIONS.--_Die Infusionsthierchen als vollkommene Organismen_ (2
vols. fol., Leipzig, 1838); _Mikrogeologie_ (2 vols. fol., Leipzig,
1854); and "Fortsetzung der mikrogeologischen Studien," in _Abhandl.
der k. Akad. der Wissenschaft_ (Berlin, 1875).
EHRENBREITSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on
the right bank of the Rhine, facing Coblenz, with which it is connected
by a railway bridge and a bridge of boats, on the main line of railway
Frankfort-on-Main-Cologne. Pop. (including the garrison) 5300. It has an
Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, a Capuchin monastery,
tanneries, soap-works and a considerable trade in wine. Above the town,
facing the mouth of the Mosel, on a rock 400 ft. high, lies the
magnificent fortress of Ehrenbreitstein, considered practically
impregnable. The sides towards the Rhine and the south and south-east
are precipitous, and on the south side, on which is the winding
approach, strongly defended. The central fort or citadel is flanked by a
double line of works with three tiers of casemate batteries. The works
towards the north and north-east end in a separate outlying fort. The
whole forms a part of the system of fortifications which surround
Coblenz.
The site of the castle is said to have been occupied by a Roman fort
built in the time of the emperor Julian. In the rith century the castle
was held by a noble named Erembert, from whom it is said to have derived
its name. In the 12th century it came into the possession of Archbishop
Hillin (de Fallemagne) of Trier, who strengthened the defences in 1153.
These were again extended by Archbishop Henry II. (de Fenetrange) in
1286, and by Archbishop John II. of Baden in 1481. In 1631 it was
surrendered by the archbishop elector Philip Christopher von Soetern to
the French, but was recovered by the Imperialists in 1637 and given to
the archbishop elector of Cologne. It was restored to the elector of
Trier in 1650, but was not strongly fortified until 1672. In 1688 the
French bombarded it in vain, but in 1759 they took it and held it till
1762. It was again blockaded in 1795, 1796 and 1797, in vain; but in
1799 they starved it into surrender, and at the peace of Luneville in
1801 blew it up before evacuating it. At the second peace of Paris the
French paid 15,000,000 francs to the Prussian government for its
restoration, and from 1816 to 1826 the fortress was reconstructed by
General E. L. Aster (1778-1855).