range with closed-in-fire between oven and hot-water tank, hot and cold
running water, the use of flushing toilets, Edmund Cartwright's power
weaving machine, Samuel Crompton's mule for spinning many threads by
waterpower in 1779, James Watt's steam engine with steam pushing the
piston both ways as well as rotary motion and used in many kinds of
factories instead of water power, Henry Bessimer's inexpensive low
carbon steel in 1856, iron and steel bridges and ships, drilling and use
of oil and natural gas as fuel, Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations" opining
that competition of the market could distribute resources best, Thomas
Paine's "Rights of Man", free trade, democracy, popular elections,
secret ballots, universal suffrage, civil service without patronage,
Mary Wollstonecraft's "Vindication of the Rights of Women", university
education for women (University of London), policemen (in London in
1829), clipper ships (the final development of sailing before steam),
percussion caps on guns, Periodic Chart of chemical elements, college
degrees in biology, chemistry, and physics, geology, Maxwell's theory of
electromagnetism, Albert Einstein's theory of relativity, quantum
theory, laws of thermodynamics that the energy of the universe is a
constant amount but entropy always increases, computers, decoding of the
DNA sequence, Charles Darwin's evolution, Joseph Lister's disinfectant
in 1867, Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccine, Louis Pasteur's germ theory
of disease, anesthetics, aspirin, insulin, penicillin, antibiotics,
surgery to replace body parts, tampon, contraceptive pill, discovery of
planet Uranus by observation and thence of Neptune and Pluto by
calculation from discrepancies in Uranus' orbit, Hubble space telescope,
Big Bang Theory, buses (horse-drawn from 1829 with 18 passengers),
subways, trains (1804), public railway (1825, goods drawn by engine and
passengers by horse), steam ships, steel ships, aircraft carriers,
submarines, tanks, friction matches, chewing gum, pajamas, gas street
lamps, traffic lights and signs, ambulances, concrete and asphalt
highways, census in 1801, children's playgrounds, knee length dresses,
chemical artificial fertilizers, substitution of steel for iron, trade
unions, digital watches, wrist watches, compact disks, intelligence
tests, personality tests, wool-combing machine, statistical analysis,
Bell curves, standard deviations, United Nations, carpet sweeper, vacuum
cleaner, central heating, apartment high rises, business skyscrapers,
electricity, electric lights, sewing machines, water closets in richer
houses (after 1778), cholera epidemics, sewers for waste disposal,
industrial revolution factories, labor strikes, cars, tractors, Charles
Dickens, ice boxes and refrigerators, telephones, central heating with
radiators, hot water heaters by gas, gas ovens, humidifiers, canned
food, four- pronged forks, suits of matching jackets and trousers,
zippers, velcro, wall-to-wall carpeting, popular elections, airplanes,
photography, record players, frozen food; cast iron kitchen range for
cooking, baking, and boiling; radio, television, plastics, submarines,
economics, multinational corporations, weather forecasting, Braille,
airplanes, space ship to moon, factory assembly lines, washing machines,
dishwashers, sewing machine, microwave ovens, copier machines, DNA
evidence, nuclear bomb and nuclear energy, guided missiles, quartz
watches, bicycles, artificial insemination and invitro fertilization,
investment advice, retirement planning, amusement parks, catalogue
buying, labor contracts, childrens' summer camps, teenage culture,
synthetic materials, typewriters, cardboard boxes, marketing studies,
factory assembly line, gene-mapping, animal cloning, Internet, hiking
and camping trips, world travel vacations, telegraph, word processing,
gas, oil, research, credit cards, dental floss, camcorders, mass
production, nursing homes, cameras, copy machines, wheelchairs, hospital
operations, artificial limbs, organ transplants, pharmacies, public
circulating libraries, children's playgrounds, cosmetic surgery,
physical exercising equipment, vitamin pills, sports clubs,
condominiums, molecules, chromosomes, observatories, radar, sonar,
nutrition, supermarkets, disability insurance, liability insurance,
chemical fertilizers, DDT, record players, video tape recorders,
retirement homes, movies;, planned obsolescence, box-spring mattresses,
brain scans, x-rays, organized professional sports, dry cleaners,
foreign embassies, psychiatry, veterinarians, drug abuse, wage
garnishment, tractors, lawnmowers, breeding zoos, world wars, nuclear
deterrence, fingerprinting, forensic evidence, toxic waste, acid rain,
elevators, picture windows, sewing machines, automation, cybernetics,
pizza delivery, health insurance, Walt Disney, satellite transmission,
radiocarbon dating, ice cream, air conditioning, ball point pens, school
blackboards, bullets in 1890s, electronic mail, first law of
thermodynamics: the conservation of energy, the second law of
thermodynamics: potential energy turns into high-temperature thermal
energy and finally into low-temperature thermal energy, but these
processes are not reversible. The science of philology, on the meaning
and history of words began the concept of a natural development of
languages which conflicted with the theological view that God had
created all the different languages when he punished man for trying to
build an edifice to heaven by destroying the Tower of Babel and
dispersing the people into all parts of the world with different
languages derived from the original: Hebrew, so that they could not
communicate with each other. The science of geology developed the
concept of tremendous changes in the earth's surface which altered
horizontal layers of deposits, in which there were fossils, which
challenged the biblical notion of a world and all its animals created in
a week. In 1784, Lord Henry Cavendish proved that the sole result of
mixing hydrogen with oxygen was water, thus disproving the theory of the
four elements of air, earth, fire, and water. In the United States,
there was no king, a separation of the executive, the legislative, and
the judicial; a separation of church and state, and no aristocratic
titles.
In this time period the development of law includes abandonment of
common law crimes such as seditious libel in the United States,
negligence and duty of due care in the United States replacing the
English strict liability for torts, substitution of the caveat emptor
doctrine for the English sound price doctrine in contract law in the
United States, truth as a defense to charge of libel in the United
States, repeal in England of seven year requirement for apprentices in
1814, married women's property acts beginning 1839: (1. right to sue and
be sued, 2. right to her own earnings, 3. right to own real and personal
property, 4. right to make contracts 5. right to stay in family
homestead with children, right to custody of children if husband
abandons her), divorce in England by courts in 1857, in United States
extension of grounds for divorce beyond adultery, bigamy, and desertion
to cruel treatment, habitual drunkenness, and conviction of a felony and
finally no-fault divorce, decline of father's paramount claim to the
custody of his minor children in the absence of a strong showing of
misconduct or unfitness, tender years doctrine (in England in 1839
mother to have custody of child under seven and to have access over
seven) and then best interests of child doctrine in custody disputes,
legal obligation for parents to support their minor children, adoption
about the 1850s; in England allowance of women attorneys in 1922, women
to vote in 1928, adultery by a husband to be adjudged as culpable as
adultery by a wife in 1923, the rights of a mother over her child to be
equal to those of a father in 1924, and the rights of a woman to
property to be the same as those of a man in 1926; child labor laws,
full religious freedom with admission of nonconformists to the two
universities in England in 1871, probable cause instead of suspicion for
search and seizure, mandamus, rule against perpetuities, mandatory
secondary education, kidnapping, false impersonation, liens, obscenity,
estoppel for detrimental reliance on a promise, unjust enrichment,
pensions, trademarks and unfair competition, antitrust, privacy, freedom
of thought, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, bankruptcy, civil
rights, union organizing laws, laws on discrimination due to race, sex,
ethnic or national origin, disability, age, and sexual preference;
sexual harassment and stalking laws, product liability, international
law, environmental laws protecting air and water quality, workers
compensation, unemployment compensation, controlled substances,
intellectual property law; and contingency fees only in the United
States,
In England, there was an end of trial by combat in 1819, of compurgation
in 1833, and of benefit of clergy. In 1820, there were 160 offenses in
England with the death penalty, including stealing from a dwelling house
to the value of 40s., stealing from a shop to a value of 5s., and
stealing anything privily from the person. The penalty for treason was
still drawing and quartering. It was a privilege of the peerage to be
immune from any punishment upon a first conviction of felony. As of
1823, church courts could no longer decide cases of perjury; as of 1855,
no cases of defamation, but only church matters. Hearsay rules and
exceptions were developed in the 1800s. In 1816, jurors were to have no
knowledge except the evidence accepted at court. In 1837, counsel for a
person indicted for high treason could examine and cross- examine
witnesses. In 1839, a defendant could see the written record of evidence
against him. In 1898, the accused was allowed to give evidence. Pleaders
do not have to specify the form of action relied on, but rather give
facts which give rise to a cause of action.
Judicial procedure includes grand juries, which hear evidence, court
transcript by court stenographers, discovery, depositions, and
presumption of innocence (after Salem witch trials in the United
States). The United States changed judicial procedure in several
respects: parties were allowed to testify, writ pleading was abandoned,
and prisons were used for reforming prisoners. Debtors prisons were
abolished. Also, the law was seen not as divinely inspired eternal law
to be found by judges, but law made by man to suit the times. State
judges served for life during good behavior; they could be removed by
the procedure of impeachment. In some states, judges were elected. There
were privileges on testimony such as attorney-client, priest-confessor,
and husband- wife.
- - - Appendix: Sovereigns of England - - -
Accession - Name -
871 Alfred the Great
899 Edward the Elder son of Alfred
924 AEthelstan son of Edward the Elder
939 Edmund son of Edward the Elder
946 Eadred son of Edward the Elder
955 Eadwig son of Edmund
959 Edgar son of Edmund
975 Edward the Martyr son of Edgar
978 AEthelred the Unready son of Edgar
1016 Edmund Ironside son of AEthelred the Unready
1016 Canute
1035 Harold I Harefoot son of Canute
1040 Hardicanute son of Canute
1042 Edward the Confessor son of Aethelred the Unready
1066 Harold II
1066 William I, the Conquerer
1087 William II son of William I
1100 Henry I (and Matilda) son of William I
1135 Stephen 1154 Henry II (and Eleanor) grandson of Henry
I
1189 Richard I, the Lion-Hearted son of Henry II
1199 John son of Henry II
1216 Henry III son of John
1272 Edward I (and Eleanor) son of Henry III
1307 Edward II son of Edward I
1327 Edward III son of Edward II
1377 Richard II grandson of Edward III
1399 Henry IV
1413 Henry V son of Henry IV
1422 Henry VI son of Henry V
1461 Edward IV
1483 Edward V son of Edward IV
1483 Richard III
1485 Henry VII (and Elizabeth)
1509 Henry VIII son of Henry VII
1547 Edward VI son of Henry VIII
1553 Mary daughter of Henry
VIII
1558 Elizabeth I daughter of Henry
VIII
1603 James I
1625 Charles I son of James I
1649 Oliver Cromwell
1660 Charles II son of Charles I
1685 James II son of Charles
I
1689 William and Mary
1694 William III
1702 Anne granddaughter of
James II
1714 George I
1727 George II son of George I
1760 George III son of
George II
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4. England in the Late Middle Ages, A.R. Myers, 1952
5. Tudor England, S.T. Bindoff, 1950
6. England in the Seventeenth Century, Maurice Ashley, 1952
THE END
INDEX