=220.= Carus, the prætorian præfect, was hailed as emperor by the army,

and conferred the title of Cæsar on his two sons, Cari´nus and Nume´rian.

Leaving the former to govern the West, Carus, with Numerian, turned

toward the East; first gained a great victory over the Sarmatians in

Illyricum, and then proceeded to overrun Mesopotamia, and capture the

two great cities of Seleucia and Ctes´iphon. He had advanced beyond

the Tigris, and seemed about to overthrow the Persian kingdom, when

he suddenly died, whether by lightning, by disease, or by the dagger,

historians are not agreed.

His son Numerian yielded to the superstitious fears of his soldiers, and

withdrew within the Roman boundaries. On the retreat he was murdered

by his father-in-law, who was also prætorian præfect, and who hoped to

conceal the crime until he could reap the fruits of it. But the army

discovered the death of their beloved emperor, and set up Diocle´tian,

the captain of the bodyguards, to avenge and succeed him.

[Illustration: Coin of Diocletian, enlarged twice the size.]

Carinus, meanwhile, reigning in the West, was dazzling the Roman world

by expensive games, and insulting it by his profligacy. Hearing of the

murder and usurpation, he marched with a large and well-disciplined army

to meet Diocletian, and joined battle near Margus, in upper Mœsia. The

Western troops were victorious, but Carinus, while leading the pursuit,

was slain by one of his own officers. His followers came to an agreement

with those of Diocletian, who was universally hailed as emperor.

=221.= His accession began a new period in the empire, when the power of

the sovereigns became more absolute, ceasing to be checked either by the

lawful authority of the Senate or the insolence of the soldiers. During

the ninety-two years which had elapsed since the death of Commodus, the

legions had claimed the privilege, not only of raising to the imperial

power whomsoever they might choose, but of removing the object of their

choice whenever he ceased to content them. No general who desired to be

emperor dared stint his donatives, or enforce the needful severity of

discipline. But for the almost constant danger from barbarians without,

the army, which was the real tyrant of the Roman world, might have

already put an end to all order, peace, and civil government.

RECAPITULATION.

Pertinax (A. D. 193) is crowned and murdered by the prætorians,

who then sell the throne to Julianus. Severus (A. D. 193-211)

buys the adhesion of the guards, and having gained the imperial

power, disarms and expels them. He enlarges his dominions

by conquests both in the east and west. Caracalla murders

his brother, and misgoverns the empire six years, A. D.

211-217. Macrinus (A. D. 217, 218) gains and loses his crown

by violence. Elagabalus (A. D. 218-222) introduces Syrian

manners and worship into Rome. He is succeeded by his cousin,

Alexander Severus (A. D. 222-235), who gains a great victory

over the new Persian empire of the Sassanidæ, but is afterward

slain in Germany during a mutiny of his troops. Maximin (A. D.

235-238), a Thracian, is set up, and in three years put down,

by his comrades in the army. The two Gordians reign less than

a month, Pupienus and Balbinus about six weeks, when a younger

Gordian (A. D. 238-244) is invested with the purple at the

age of twelve. He loses his life through the arts of Philip

the Arab, who becomes emperor, and celebrates, A. D. 248, the

thousandth year of the existence of Rome. Decius, being sent to

quell a revolt in Pannonia, is crowned by the soldiers, A. D.

249, and Philip is slain. Two great calamities mark the reign

of Decius: a persecution of Christians and an incursion of

Goths. Gallus (A. D. 251-253) is deposed by Æmilianus, who is

soon superseded by Valerian (A. D. 254-260). The whole empire

is overrun by Gothic and German invaders. Valerian, in his

wars in the East, is captured, and spends the last seven years

of his life at Sapor’s court. “Thirty Tyrants” spring up in

various parts of the empire. Gallienus reigns in Italy, first

with his father, Valerian, and afterward alone, A. D. 254-268.

He is slain through the management of a pretender, Aureolus,

but is succeeded by Claudius (A. D. 268-270), who defeats the

barbarians. Aurelian (A. D. 270-275) makes the Danube again the

northern boundary of the empire; subdues Zenobia in the east

and Tetricus in the west; is murdered on his way to Persia.

Tacitus (A. D. 275, 276), being appointed by the Senate, reigns

two hundred days. Florian, his brother, is deposed by his own

troops. Probus (A. D. 276-282) restores security by a wise

and energetic reign. Carus gains great victories in the East;

but after his sudden death, his son Numerian abandons his

conquests. Numerian is slain in the East, Carinus in the West,

and Diocletian becomes emperor.

THIRD PERIOD, A. D. 284-395.

=222.= Under the firm and wise policy of Diocletian, the Roman world

entered upon a century of greater vigor and security. The empire being

too large to be administered by a single head, Diocletian conferred

equal power upon his friend and comrade Maxim´ian, with the title of

Augustus. A few years later, two Cæsars, Gale´rius and Constan´tius, were

added to the imperial college, each being associated, as adopted son and

successor, with one of the emperors. To the Cæsars were assigned the more

exposed provinces, which needed an active and vigilant administration,

while the Augusti kept to themselves the old and settled portions of the

empire. Constantius had Gaul, Spain, Britain, and the whole frontier of

the Rhine; Galerius had Noricum, Pannonia, and Mœsia, with the defenses

of the Danube; while Maximian governed Italy and Africa, and Diocletian

retained for himself Thrace, Macedonia, Egypt, and the East. Though

allotted thus to its several rulers, the empire was not divided. The four

princes governed in consultation, and were equally honored in all parts

of the realm.

=223.= In A. D. 286, a naval chief, Carau´sius, being intrusted with a

powerful fleet for the defense of the British and Gallic coasts against

the Franks, gained over the troops in Britain, seized the island, and

set up an independent government. He built new ships, and soon became

master of the Western seas. Diocletian and Maximian, after vain attempts

to break his power, were compelled to acknowledge him as their colleague

in the empire, A. D. 287. Constantius, upon becoming Cæsar, made war, A.

D. 292, upon this new Augustus; captured Boulogne after a long and severe

siege, and was preparing to invade Britain, when Carausius was killed by

his chief officer, Allec´tus.

Constantius landed, three years later, in Britain, and by a battle near

London recovered the island. He afterward drove the Alemanni out of Gaul,

and settled his captives in colonies upon the lands depopulated by their

ravages. At the same time, Maximian quelled a formidable revolt of the

Moors in Africa; and Diocletian, by a siege of eight months, captured

Alexandria, where a rival emperor had usurped the throne, and punished

the rebellious city by a massacre in which many thousands perished. The

Cæsar Galerius made war against the Persians for the recovery of Armenia,

which they had taken from Tirida´tes, the vassal of Rome. He was defeated

near Carrhæ, on the very scene of the overthrow of Crassus, more than

three centuries before; but he retrieved this misfortune by a great

victory over King Narses, followed by an advantageous peace.

=224.= The system of Diocletian was thus effective and prosperous, as far

as it concerned the foreign enemies of the state; but the expenses of

four imperial courts, with the immense number of soldiers and officials,

imposed heavy burdens upon the people. The wretched tax-payers were often

tortured to enforce payments which they were unable to make. The civil

wars of the preceding centuries had deprived extensive districts of

inhabitants; and the productions of the earth and of human industry had

ceased.

=225.= The greatest blot upon the memory of Diocletian is the persecution

of Christians in the last year of his reign. Every province and every

great city of the empire had now heard the doctrines of Christ, and

the church in Rome numbered 50,000 members. In an age of turbulence

and corruption, Christians were every-where distinguished as the most

orderly, industrious, loyal, and honest members of the community. Their

refusal to worship the image of the emperor, which was an essential part

of the Roman religion, had brought upon them several local persecutions,

but none so widely extended and severe as that of Diocletian. The edict

requiring uniformity of worship was issued A. D. 303. Instantly the cruel

passions of the pagans were let loose from restraint. Innocent blood

flowed in every province. Whoever had either malice or covetousness

to indulge, had only to accuse his enemy of being a Christian, and

to be rewarded with half the confiscated goods. In the extreme west,

Constantius protected those of the “new religion,” but elsewhere there

was no appeal from the atrocious cruelties sanctioned by courts of law.

=226.= Of the many acts by which Diocletian abased the authority of the

Senate, the most effective was the removal of the center of government

from the ancient city on the Tiber. His own official residence was

at Nicomedia; that of Maximian, at Milan; while Constantius held a

provincial court at York, and Galerius at Sirmium, on the Savus. The

Senate thus became the mere council of a provincial town. Imperial edicts

took the place of the laws which had formerly received its sanction. The

insolent prætorians were, at the same time, replaced by the “Jovian”

and “Herculean Guards”; and their præfect, who had been a rival of the

emperor, became merely an officer of the palace. Diocletian, however,

celebrated the twentieth year of his reign, and his numerous victories,

by a triumphal entry into Rome; and this was the last “triumph” which the

ancient capital ever beheld.

=227.= The next year, A. D. 305, Diocletian, worn out with the cares

of empire, formally abdicated his power, and compelled Maximian to do

the same. The two Cæsars now became Augusti, and two new candidates,

Maximin and Severus, were appointed by Galerius to the former title. The

legions in Britain were dissatisfied, however, by seeing the choice of

a successor taken away from their own imperator; and upon the death of

Constantius, A. D. 306, they immediately proclaimed Con´stantine, his

son. He was acknowledged as Cæsar by Galerius, who conferred the rank of

Augustus on Severus.

But, the next year, Maxen´tius, son of Maximian, was declared emperor by

the Senate and people of Rome, and his father resumed the purple, which

he had unwillingly laid aside at the command of Diocletian. Severus,

attempting to crush this insurrection, was taken captive at Ravenna, and

privately put to death. Galerius now conferred the imperial dignity on

Licinius, and for two years the Roman world was peaceably governed by

six masters: Constantine, Maximian, and Maxentius in the West; Galerius,

Maximin, and Licinius in the East.

=228.= The peace was first broken by the dissensions of Maximian and

his son. The elder emperor fled from Rome, and was well received by

Constantine, who had married his daughter. Before long, however, Maximian

entered again into plots with Maxentius for the ruin of Constantine;

which becoming known to their intended victim, he returned promptly from

his campaign on the Rhine, besieged his father-in-law in Massilia, and

put him to death, A. D. 310. Galerius died the next year at Nicomedia,

and the empire was again divided into four parts, of which Constantine

ruled the extreme west; Maxentius, Italy and Africa; Licinius, Illyricum

and Thrace; Maximin, Egypt and Asia.

The cruel and rapacious character of Maxentius wearied out his subjects,

who sent deputies from Rome, beseeching Constantine to come and be their

sovereign. This great general had won the love of his followers, not

less by his firm and successful dealings with the barbarians, than by

his liberal protection of the Christians, whose virtues he esteemed, and

whose rights of conscience he respected. On his march toward Italy, it is

said that he beheld a vision. A flaming cross appeared in the heavens,

bearing in Greek the inscription, “By this, conquer!” Thenceforth, the

cross replaced the pagan symbols which had been carried at the head of

the legions; and the omen, if such it was, was amply fulfilled.

=229.= Constantine passed the Alps, A. D. 312, defeated the troops of

Maxentius near Turin, captured Verona after an obstinate siege and

battle, and encountered his rival in a final combat before the gates

of Rome. In the battle of the Mil´vian Bridge, Maxentius was defeated

and drowned. The following year, Maximin was defeated by Licinius, in

a great battle at Heraclea, on the Propontis, and put an end to his

life at Tarsus, in Cilicia. Constantine and Licinius, in a series of

battles, divided the world between them. The river Strymon and the Ægean

became the boundaries between the Eastern and Western empires. Two

sons of Constantine and one of Licinius received the title of Cæsar.

Crispus, on the Rhine, gained a victory over the Franks and Alemanni; and

Constantine, on the Danube, executed a terrible vengeance upon the Goths,

who had invaded the Roman territory.

=230.= After seven years’ peace, war broke out between the emperors,

in A. D. 322. Licinius was defeated near Hadriano´ple, besieged in

Byzantium, and finally overthrown upon the Heights of Scuta´ri,

overlooking the latter city. His death made Constantine the sole ruler

of the civilized world. His great dominion received a new constitution

suitable to its magnitude. The seat of government was fixed upon the

confines of Europe and Asia, in the new and magnificent city bearing the

emperor’s name, which he built upon the ruins of the Greek Byzantium.

The whole empire was divided into four _præfectures_, which nearly

corresponded to the dominions of the four emperors, A. D. 311. (§ 228.)

Each præfecture was divided into _dioceses_, and each diocese into

proconsular governments, or _presidencies_.

This subdivision of the empire gave rise to three ranks of officials,

somewhat resembling the nobility of modern Europe. The republican

form of government, so ostentatiously cherished by Augustus, had now

disappeared, and in its place was the elaborate ceremony of an Oriental

court. Even the 10,000 spies, known as the “King’s Eyes,” were maintained

as of old by Xerxes and Darius. A standing army of 645,000 men was kept

upon the frontier; but as Roman citizens were now averse to military

service, the legions were largely composed of barbarian mercenaries. The

Franks, especially, had great importance, both in the court and camp of

Constantine.

=231.= The great event of this reign was the admission of Christianity

as, in a certain sense, the religion of the state. The Edict of Milan, A.

D. 313, guaranteed to the hitherto persecuted people perfect security and

respect; that of A. D. 324 exhorted all subjects of the empire to follow

the example of their sovereign, and become Christians. Heathenism was not

yet proscribed. Constantine was pontifex maximus, and must, on certain

occasions, have offered sacrifices to the fabulous gods of Rome. It was

only in his last days that he received Christian baptism; but he presided

in the first General Council of the Church at Nice, in Bithynia, A. D.

325, to which he had convened bishops from all parts of the empire, to

decide certain disputed matters of faith. Though he treated the assembled

fathers with every mark of reverence, he refused to persecute Arius and

his followers, the Alexandrian heretics, whom the Council condemned.

=232.= Crispus, the eldest son of Constantine, who had been named Cæsar

at the age of seventeen, was the idol of the people, but an object of

jealousy to his father, who suspected him of treasonable designs. Whether

the charges against him were true, we have no means of knowing. He was

seized during the festivities in Rome, in honor of the twentieth year of

his father’s reign, tried secretly, and put to death. The last years of

Constantine were disturbed by fresh movements of the barbarians north of

the Danube. The Sarmatians, being attacked by the Goths, implored the aid

of the Romans. Constantine was defeated in one battle with the invaders,

but in the next he was victorious, and 100,000 Goths, driven into the

mountains, perished with cold and hunger. In the division of spoils, the

Sarmatians were dissatisfied, and revenged themselves by making inroads

upon the Roman dominions. In succeeding wars they were defeated and

scattered; 300,000 were received as vassals of the empire, and settled in

military colonies in Pannonia, Thrace, Macedonia, and Italy.

=233.= Hoping to secure peace to the empire after his death, Constantine

assigned its different parts to his three sons and two nephews, whom he

had carefully educated for their great responsibilities. But his care was

unavailing. Immediately upon his decease, A. D. 337, Constantius, his

second son, being nearest, seized the capital, and ordered a massacre

of all whose birth or power could give them any hopes of obtaining the

sovereignty. Of his own relatives, only two cousins, Gallus and Julian,

escaped. The three sons of Constantine then divided the empire between

them. Constantine II., the eldest, received the capital, together with

Gaul, Spain, and Britain; Constantius had Thrace and the East; Constans,

Italy, Africa, and western Illyricum.

The reign of Constantius was occupied by a disastrous war with Persia.

The pagan Armenians revolted upon the death of their king, Tiridates—a

“friend of the Romans,” who had established Christian worship in his

dominions—and opened their gates to the Persians. The son of Tiridates

sought the aid of Constantius, who succeeded in restoring the prince

Chos´roes to his dominions. The fortress of Nisibis, which was esteemed

the bulwark of the East, withstood three memorable sieges by the

Persians; but the Roman armies were defeated in nine pitched battles,

and the raids of the Persian cavalry extended even to the Mediterranean,

where they captured and plundered Antioch.

=234.= In the meanwhile, discord had broken out between the emperors in

the West, and Constantine II., invading the dominions of his brother

Constans, was defeated and slain near Aquileia. Constans seized his

provinces, and reigned ten years (A. D. 340-350) over two-thirds of his

father’s empire. Magnentius, an officer in Gaul, then assumed the purple,

and Constans was slain. Constantius, recalled from his Persian wars,

defeated Magnentius in a toilsome campaign on the Danube; received the

submission of Rome and the Italian cities; and finally, by a great battle

among the Cottian Alps, ended the rebellion with the life of the usurper,

A. D. 353. Sixteen years after the death of the great Constantine, the

empire was thus reunited under one sovereign. Gallus, the cousin of

Constantius, had been taken from prison to receive the title of Cæsar

and the government of the East. But he proved wholly unfit to rule; he

treated with insult the embassador of his cousin, and even caused him to

be murdered by the mob of Antioch. Gallus was thereupon recalled, and put

to death at Pola, in Is´tria.

RECAPITULATION.

Diocletian (A. D. 284-305) associates Maximian as “Augustus,”

and Galerius and Constantius as “Cæsars,” with himself in

the management of the empire. Constantius overthrows the

sovereignty of Carausius in Britain and northern Gaul. Galerius

gains victories in Asia; Diocletian, in Egypt; and Maximian, in

Africa. The new system is efficient abroad, but oppressive at

home. Christians are severely persecuted. Seat of government

removed from Rome. Diocletian and Maximian resign, A. D. 305.

Galerius (A. D. 305-311) and Constantius (A. D. 305, 306)

become emperors; Severus and Maximin, Cæsars. Constantine the

Great (A. D. 306-337), succeeding his father, Constantius,

eventually conquers Maximian, who has resumed the purple, and

Maxentius (A. D. 312), who has been proclaimed at Rome, and

reigns over the Western empire. Licinius (A. D. 307-323), after

the death of Galerius, conquers Maximin, and reigns east of the

Ægean. Constantine conquers Licinius, A. D. 323, and becomes

sole emperor. Fixes his court at Constantinople; reorganizes

the government; makes Christianity the religion of the state;

has wars with the Goths; and establishes military colonies of

Sarmatians within the bounds of the empire. After his death,

his three sons destroy their kinsmen, and divide the dominion

between them. While Constantius II. is at war with Persia, his

brother, Constantine II., is slain by Constans, who is himself

deposed, after ten years, by Magnentius. Constantius, returning

from the East, A. D. 350, defeats Magnentius, and reigns over

his father’s entire dominion, A. D. 353-361.

EXTINCTION OF PAGANISM.

=235.= Julian, the younger brother of Gallus, was permitted to pursue

his favorite studies at Athens, until, A. D. 355, he was called to the

court of Milan, dignified with the title of Cæsar, and intrusted with

the government of Gaul. His conduct displayed great energy and talent.

He severely defeated the Alemanni, in the battle of Strasbourg; drove

the Franks from their castles on the Meuse; and in three invasions of

Germany, liberated 20,000 Roman captives. He rebuilt the cities of Gaul

which the barbarians had destroyed; adorned Paris, his winter residence,

with a palace, theater, and baths; imported grain from Britain for the

sustenance of the people; and protected agriculture, manufactures, and

commerce.

Constantius became jealous of his cousin’s fame, and sought to disarm

and disgrace him, by ordering the greater part of the Gallic army to the

East. Julian was preparing to send away his devoted followers, but the

soldiers mutinied, proclaimed him emperor, and forced him to assume the

purple robe. An embassy to Constantius was contemptuously dismissed; and

Julian, after again chastising the Franks, and improving the defenses

of the German frontier, set forth to decide the question by actual war.

Penetrating the Black Forest as far as the Danube, he descended that

river with a captured fleet, surprised Sirmium, and was received with

acclamations by the people. He sent letters justifying his conduct to the

principal cities of the empire, especially to the senates of Athens and

Rome; and he was invested by the latter with the imperial titles which it

alone could legally bestow. The sudden death of Constantius, at Tarsus,

Nov., A. D. 361, ended the uncertainty. All Constantinople poured forth

to welcome Julian, at a distance of sixty miles from the capital, and

soldiers and people throughout the empire accepted him as their head.

=236.= His first acts were to retrench the Oriental luxury of the palace,

to punish the officers of Constantius who had oppressed the people, and

to dismiss the 10,000 spies. A philosopher by choice, and an emperor

only by compulsion, Julian prided himself upon the frugal simplicity of

his habits, and professed himself merely the “servant of the Republic.”

He is known in history by the unhappy name of “Julian the Apostate.”

Incensed against the _Christian_ cousins who had murdered his entire

family, he extended his hatred to the faith which they so unworthily

professed. He publicly renounced Christianity, and placed himself and his

empire under the protection of the “Immortal Gods.”

To spite the Christians, he patronized the Jews, and attempted to rebuild

their Temple at Jerusalem; but he was thwarted by balls of fire breaking

out near the foundation, which made it impossible for the workmen to

approach.[79] He excluded all Christians from the schools of grammar

and rhetoric, hoping thus to degrade them in intellectual rank, and

weaken them in controversy. He, however, disappointed the pagan zealots

by proclaiming toleration to all parties. In the spring of A. D. 363,

Julian departed with a great army for the East, where the ravages of the

Persian king had for four years met with little resistance. He gained an

important victory over the Persians at Ctesiphon, but in a subsequent

skirmish he was mortally wounded, and died, June, A. D. 363, after a

reign of only sixteen months.

=237.= Jovian, the captain of the life-guards, was saluted as Augustus

by the generals of Julian. He obtained peace with the Persian king by

ceding the five provinces east of the Tigris, and then conducted a

difficult retreat to the capital. The principal act of his reign was

the re-establishment of Christian worship and of universal tolerance.

He died, Feb., A. D. 364, after a reign of eight months. The civil

and military officers of the empire met at Nicæa, and chose for their

sovereign Valentin´ian, a Christian and a brave soldier, who had

distinguished himself by service both on the Tigris and the Rhine. His

brother Valens was made his colleague, with the command of the East,

extending from the lower Danube to the boundaries of Persia.

=238.= Valentinian fixed his capital at Milan, which alternated with

Rheims and Treves as his headquarters. He signally defeated the Alemanni,

and guarded the Rhine by a new series of forts. The coasts of western

Europe now began to be overrun by piratical Saxons, while the Picts and

Scots swept over all the cultivated fields of southern Britain, from the

Wall of Antoninus to the coast of Kent. Theodo´sius, father of the future

emperor of that name, led a veteran army to the relief of the Britons,

and afterward gained among the Orkneys a great naval victory over the

Saxons.

Having defeated the Alemanni on the upper Danube, Theodosius was next

sent into Africa to quell a revolt of the Moors and provincials, provoked

by the extortions of Count Roma´nus. Firmus, the chief of the Moors, was

as wily as Jugurtha, but Theodosius showed all the skill of Metellus or

of Scipio. He imprisoned Romanus and restored order to the province; but

he was rewarded only by unjust suspicions and a military execution, A. D.

376. Valentinian was already dead (Nov., A. D. 375), and the ministers

who surrounded his son disguised the truth to suit their own purposes.

=239.= Valens, meanwhile reigning in the East, was far inferior to his

brother in firmness and beneficence of character. At the beginning

of his reign, Proco´pius, a kinsman of Julian, gained possession of

Constantinople, and kept it several months as nominal emperor. He was

captured at last, and suffered a cruel death in the camp of Valens. The

great event of this period was the irruption of a new and terrible race

of savages from northern Asia. The Huns were more hideous, cruel, and

implacable than even the fiercest of the barbarians hitherto known to the

Romans. The Great Wall, which still divides China from Mongolia, had been

erected as a barrier against their inroads; but their attention was now

turned to the westward, where the Goths, north of the Black Sea, were the

first to feel their power.

The great Gothic kingdom of Her´manric extended from the Danube and

Euxine to the Baltic, and embraced many kindred tribes, of which

the eastern or Ostro-Goths, and the western or Visi-Goths were most

important. The former were conquered by the Huns; the latter besought

permission from Valens to settle on the waste lands south of the Danube,

and become subjects of the empire. Their request was granted, and a

million of men, women, and children crossed the river. But the Roman

commissioners who were charged with receiving and feeding this starving

multitude, seized the opportunity to make their own fortunes, at the

expense of their honor and of the safety of the empire.

The Goths had been required to give up their arms, but they purchased of

these officers permission to retain them. The food which was served to

them was of the vilest quality and most extravagant price. Discontent

broke out among the turbulent and armed host. The Gothic warriors marched

upon Marcianop´olis, defeated the army which was sent to defend it, and

laid waste all Thrace with fire and sword. Instead of pacifying the Goths

by a just punishment of the offenders, and by pledges of justice for the

future, Valens sent for aid to his nephew Gratian, and advanced with his

army to fight with the barbarians. In a battle near Hadrianople he was

slain, and two-thirds of his army perished, A. D. 378.

=240.= Gratian, the son of Valentinian, had been three years emperor of

the West, and now became sole sovereign of the dominions of Augustus.

He chose, however, for a colleague, the general Theodosius, to whom he

committed the empire of Valens, with the addition of the province of

Illyricum. The youth of Gratian was adorned by a fair promise of all the

virtues; but as soon as his excellent instructors left him, he proved

himself weak and wholly unfit for command. Bad men gained and abused his

confidence.

Maximus, in Britain, revolted, and passed over into Gaul with an army.

Instead of fighting, Gratian fled from Paris; his armies deserted to the

enemy, and the fugitive emperor was overtaken and slain at Lyons, A. D.

383. He had already, on his accession, shared the imperial dignity with

his brother, Valentinian II., then only five years of age. Maximus, being

in actual possession of the countries west of the Alps, was acknowledged

by Theodosius, on condition of the young Valentinian being left in secure

possession of Italy and Africa. The sovereign of Gaul, Spain, and Britain

soon became strong enough to break his word. He invaded Italy, and the

young emperor, with Justi´na his mother, fled to the court of Theodosius

for protection. The emperor of the East marched to attack Maximus, whom

he defeated and caused to be executed as a traitor, and established

Valentinian II. in the sovereignty of the whole Western empire.

=241.= The young sovereign of the West proved as weak as his brother.

He fell under the control of an officer of his own, a Frank named

Arbogas´tes; and when he attempted to shake off the yoke, the too

powerful servant murdered his master and set up an emperor of his own

choosing. Euge´nius reigned two years (A. D. 392-394), as the tool of

Arbogastes; but Theodosius at length defeated his army near Aquileia, and

put him to death.

For four months the Roman world was united, for the last time, under

one sovereign. Theodosius the Great well deserved the title by which he

is known in history. His vigorous and prudent management changed the

Goths from dangerous enemies into powerful friends. Great colonies of

Visi-Goths were formed in Thrace, and of Ostro-Goths in Asia Minor; and

40,000 of their warriors were employed in the armies of the emperor. If

later monarchs had acted with the wisdom and firmness of Theodosius,

these recruits might have added great strength to the then declining

empire. They were, in fact, a chief occasion of its fall.

=242.= This reign is marked by the extinction of the old pagan worship.

The temples were destroyed, and all sacrifices or divinations forbidden.

The Egyptians believed that Serapis would avenge any profanation of his

temple at Alexandria; but when a soldier, climbing to the head of the

colossal idol, smote its cheek with his battle-ax, the popular faith was

shaken, and it was admitted that a god who could not defend himself

was no longer to be worshiped. Arians and other Christian heretics were

persecuted with scarcely less rigor than the pagans; for they were

forbidden to preach, ordain ministers, or hold meetings for public

worship. The penalties inflicted by Theodosius were nothing more than

fines and civil disabilities; but his contemporary, Maximus, is said to

have been the “first Christian prince who shed the blood of his Christian

subjects for their religious opinions.”

The power and dignity of the Church at this time is shown by the conduct

of Ambro´sius, Archbishop of Milan. Theodosius had ordered a general

massacre of the people of Thessalonica, as a punishment for a wanton

tumult which had arisen in their circus, during which a Gothic general

and several of his officers had been killed. Several thousands of

persons, the innocent with the guilty, were slaughtered by barbarian

troops sent thither for the purpose. When the emperor, who was then

at Milan, went as usual to church, Ambrosius met him at the door, and

refused to admit him to any of the offices of religion until he should

publicly confess his guilt. The interdict continued eight months; but, at

length, the master of the civilized world, in the garb of the humblest

suppliant, implored pardon in the presence of all the congregation, and

was restored, at Christmas, A. D. 390, to the communion of the Church.

Before his death, Theodosius divided his great dominions between his two

sons, giving the East to Arcadius, and the West to Hono´rius. The latter,

who was only eleven years of age, was placed under the guardianship

of the Vandal general Stil´icho, who had married a niece of the great

emperor. Theodosius died at Milan, Jan. 17, A. D. 395.

RECAPITULATION.

Julian administers Gaul and invades Germany with great energy

and success. He incurs the jealousy of his cousin, and is

declared emperor by his troops. Constantius dies, and Julian

(A. D. 361-363), now universally acknowledged, restores

paganism. He is killed in an Eastern campaign, and is succeeded

by Jovian, who withdraws west of the Tigris. On the death of

Jovian, A. D. 364, Valentinian (A. D. 364-375) is chosen by the

court and army, and assigns the Eastern empire to his brother

Valens. The general Theodosius gains important victories over

Saxons, Picts, Scots, and Moors. Procopius usurps for a time

the Eastern capital, and the empire is threatened by both Huns

and Goths. In war with the latter, Valens is slain. Gratian (A.

D. 375-383), son of Valentinian, confers the Eastern empire

upon the younger Theodosius (A. D. 379-395). He is himself

dethroned by Maximus, who becomes sovereign of Gaul, Spain,

and Britain, and even expels the brother of Gratian (A. D.

387) from Italy. Theodosius destroys Maximus, and restores

Valentinian II. as emperor of the West; but this young monarch

is soon murdered by Arbogastes. Eugenius reigns two years, A.

D. 392-394. Theodosius defeats him, and rules the united empire

four months. He conciliates the Goths; abolishes pagan rites;

persecutes heretics; does penance at Milan; divides the empire

between Arcadius and Honorius.

FOURTH PERIOD, A. D. 395-476.

=243.= The empire east of the Adriatic continued more than a thousand

years from the accession of Arcadius, and its records belong to Mediæval

History. From the death of the great Theodosius, the division of the

two empires was complete. Rufi´nus, the minister of Arcadius, bore a

mortal enmity to Stilicho, the guardian of Honorius; and for the sake of

revenge, he let loose the Goths upon the Western empire. Al´aric, the

Visi-Goth, was made master-general of the Eastern armies in Illyricum. At

the same time, he was elected to be king of his own countrymen, and it is

uncertain in which character he invaded Italy, A. D. 400-403. Honorius

was driven from Milan, but Stilicho defeated the invader at Pollen´tia,

and afterward at Verona, and persuaded him, by promises of lands for his

followers, to withdraw from Italy.

During the rejoicings at Rome on account of his retreat, an incident

occurred which marks the progress of Christianity in the declining

empire. Telem´achus, a monk, entered the arena of the Coliseum and

attempted to separate the gladiators, protesting, in the name of Christ,

against their inhuman combat. He was stoned to death by the crowd; but

their remorse bestowed upon him the honors of a martyr; and the emperor,

who was present, made a law abolishing forever the shedding of human

blood for public sport.

=244.= Honorius transferred his capital from Milan to the impregnable

fortress among the marshes of Ravenna, which continued three centuries

to be the seat of government for Italy. A fresh invasion from Germany,

led by the pagan Radagai´sus, devastated western Italy. Gaul was, at

the same time, overrun by a mingled horde of Vandals, Suevi, Alani, and

Burgundians; and from that moment the Roman Empire may be said to have

fallen in the countries beyond the Alps. The army in Britain revolted;

and after electing and murdering two emperors, set up Constantine, who

led them into Gaul, defeated the German invaders, passed into Spain, and

established a kind of sovereignty over the three western countries of

Europe.

Meanwhile, Stilicho was disgraced and slain, through the intrigues of

his enemy, Olympius. While the barbarian auxiliaries in his army were

lamenting his death, they were enraged by a massacre of their wives and

children, who had been kept as hostages in the various cities of Italy.

This insane act of cruelty sealed the fate of Rome. The barbarians,

freed from either the duty or necessity of obeying Honorius, flocked to

the camp of Alaric, in Illyricum, and urged him to invade Italy. The

Visi-Goth had injuries of his own to avenge. He passed the Alps and the

Po, and, after a rapid march, pitched his camp upon the Tiber. Rome was

reduced to starvation. Thousands died of famine, and thousands more

from the pestilence which it occasioned. At length, Alaric accepted the

terms offered by the Senate, and retired, upon the payment of an enormous

ransom, A. D. 408.

=245.= His brother-in-law, Adolphus, now joined him with a troop of Huns

and Goths. Alaric offered peace to the court of Ravenna, on condition of

receiving lands for his followers, between the Danube and the Adriatic.

His demands being refused, he again marched upon Rome, and set up an

emperor of his own choosing, in At´talus, præfect of the city. Ravenna

was only saved from his attack by a reinforcement from Theodosius II.,

now emperor of the East. Africa was likewise delivered by the vigilance

of Count Herac´lian. But Alaric was soon tired of his puppet-king. He

deposed him, and again sought peace with Honorius. The treaty failed

through the ill-will of Sarus, a Goth in the imperial service, who was a

bitter enemy and rival of Alaric.

The king of the Visi-Goths now turned a third time, and with relentless

rage, upon Rome. The Eternal City was taken, Aug. 10, A. D. 410, and

for six days was given up to the horrible scenes of murder and pillage.

Though greatly reduced in power, Rome had never lost her dignity, or

the wealth of her old patrician houses. These were now ransacked; gold,

jewels, and silken garments, Grecian sculptures and paintings, and

the choicest spoils of conquered countries, brought home in triumph

by ancestors of the present families, went to enrich the Gothic and

Scythic hordes, who were so ignorant of the value of their plunder, that

exquisite vases were often divided by a stroke of a battle-ax, and their

fragments distributed among the common soldiers. Only the churches and

their property were respected, for Alaric declared that he waged war with

the Romans, and not with the apostles.

=246.= At length the king of the Goths withdrew, laden with spoils, along

the Appian Way, meditating the conquest of Sicily and Africa. Storms,

however, destroyed his hastily constructed fleet, and a sudden death

terminated his career of conquest. He was buried in the channel of the

little river Busenti´nus, and his sepulcher was adorned by his followers

with the treasures of Rome. Adolphus, his successor, made peace with

Honorius, and received the hand of the imperial princess Placid´ia, who

had been taken prisoner during the siege. Her bridal gifts consisted of

the spoils of her country. Adolphus retired into Gaul, and then into

Spain, where he founded the kingdom of the Visi-Goths, as a dependency

upon the Western empire.

Constantine was driven out of Spain, and captured at Arles, by

Constantius, who was rewarded for his distinguished services by a

marriage with Placidia, after the death of her Gothic husband, and by

the imperial titles which he bore as the colleague of her brother. He

reigned but seven months, and after his death Placidia quarreled with

Honorius, and took refuge with her nephew at Constantinople. In a few

months the emperor of the West ended a disgraceful reign of twenty-eight

years, A. D. 423. John, his secretary, usurped the throne; but Theodosius

II. sent a fleet and army to enforce the claims of his cousin, the son of

Placidia, and the troops in Ravenna were easily persuaded to surrender

their upstart emperor. John was beheaded at Aquileia, A. D. 425.

=247.= Valentinian III. was a child of six years. The Western empire was

therefore placed under the regency of his mother, Placidia, who continued

to rule it for a quarter of a century, while the military command was

held by Aë´tius and Boniface. Unhappily, these two generals were enemies.

The malicious falsehoods of Aëtius led Boniface into rebellion, and lost

Africa to the empire. Gen´seric, king of the Vandals in Spain, willingly

accepted the invitation of Boniface, and crossed the straits with 50,000

men. The Moors immediately joined his army; the Donatists[80] hailed him

as their deliverer from persecution.

Too late, Boniface discovered his mistake, and returned to his

allegiance. All Roman Africa, except Carthage, Cirta, and Hippo Regius,

had passed over to the Vandals. Forces were sent from Constantinople

to aid those of Italy; but the combined armies were defeated, and

Boniface was compelled to abandon Africa, taking with him all the Roman

inhabitants who were able to leave. The countries on the Danube had been

ceded to the Eastern empire, in return for the aid of Theodosius II., in

placing Valentinian III. upon his throne. Britain, unprotected by the

Roman armies, had thrown off her allegiance, and had for forty years no

government except that of the clergy, the nobles, and the magistrates

of the towns. The Goths were settled permanently in south-western Gaul;

the Burgundians in the east, and the Franks in the north of the same

country; and except a small tract in southern Gaul, the Western empire

now included only Italy and the region of the western Alps.

=248.= Aëtius defended the Gallic province against the Visi-Goths on one

side, and the Franks on the other, until the latter called in a new and

more terrible ally than all previous invaders, in At´tila, king of the

Huns. This savage chief was known to the terror-stricken world of his

time, as the Scourge of God. He had subdued to his authority all the

barbarians between the Baltic and the Euxine, the Rhine and the Volga,

and his army of 700,000 men was officered by a host of subject kings. He

had been for nine years ravaging the Eastern empire to the very walls

of Constantinople, and had only retired upon the promise of an enormous

annual tribute, and the immediate payment of 6,000 pounds of gold. He now

invaded Gaul, in behalf of a Frankish king who had been driven beyond the

Rhine, and had sought his aid.

Theod´oric, the son of Alaric, now king of the Visi-Goths, had allied

himself with the Romans, and their united armies came up with Attila,

just as he had effected the capture of Orleans by battering down its

walls. The Hun instantly drew off his hordes from the plunder of the

city, and retreated across the Seine to the plains about Chalons´, where

his Scythian cavalry could operate to better advantage. Then followed

one of the most memorable battles in the history of the world. The aged

king Theodoric was slain, but the victory was gained by the valor of

his subjects. Attila was driven to his circle of wagons, and only the

darkness of night prevented the total destruction of his hosts.

This was the last victory ever achieved in the name of the Western

empire. It settled the great question, whether modern Europe should be

Teuton or Tartar. The Goths were already Christian; their rude energy was

well adapted to the laws and institutions of civilized life. The Huns

were savage, heathen, destructive; mighty to ravage and desolate, but

never, in their greatest power and wealth, known to build and organize

a state. Most of what is admirable in European history would have been

reversed by a different result of the battle of Chalons.

=249.= Attila retreated beyond the Rhine. Two years later, he descended

into north-eastern Italy, reduced Aquileia, Alti´num, Concordia, and

Padua to heaps of ashes, and plundered Pavia and Milan. The fugitives

from the old territory of the Veneti took refuge upon the hundred low

islets at the head of the Adriatic, and laid, in poverty and industry,

the foundations of the Republic of Venice. While he was diverted from

his threatened march upon Rome, by the intercessions of Pope Leo,

Attila suddenly died, and his kingdom fell to pieces even more rapidly

than it had been built up. Two of his sons perished in battle. Irnac,

the youngest, retired into Scythia. Valentinian showed his relief from

apprehension by murdering Aëtius with his own hand. Having in many ways

disgusted and offended his subjects, he was himself assassinated in

March, A. D. 455.

Maximus, his murderer, assumed the purple, but he continued in power less

than three months. Eudox´ia, the widow of Valentinian, called in the aid

of Genseric, the Vandal king of Africa, who, commanding the Mediterranean

with his fleets, was only too eager for the spoils of Italy. The Romans,

as soon as he had landed in Ostia, put to death their unworthy emperor;

but this execution failed to appease the barbarian. Fourteen days the

Eternal City was again given up to a pillage more unscrupulous than that

of Alaric. The Vandal fleet, waiting at Ostia, was laden with all the

wealth which the Goths had spared, and receiving on board the empress

Eudoxia and her daughter, made a safe return to Carthage.

=250.= The Romans were too much paralyzed to appoint a new sovereign.

When the news reached Gaul, Avi´tus, the general of the armies there, was

proclaimed, through the influence of Theodoric II., and was acknowledged

for more than a year throughout the Western empire. But, A. D. 456, Count

Ric´imer, a Goth commanding the foreign auxiliaries in Italy, rebelled,

and captured Avitus in a battle near Placentia. He set up Marjo´rian,

whose talents and virtues revived some appearance of justice and energy

in the government. A fleet was now prepared for the invasion of Africa,

in the hope not only of retaliating upon Genseric for his plunder of

Rome, but of stopping the ravages of the Vandal pirates upon the coasts

of Italy. It was betrayed to the emissaries of Genseric, in the Spanish

port of Carthagena.

Ricimer, by this time, was jealous of his _protégé_, and, forcing him

to resign, set up a new puppet in the person of Lib´ius Severus, in

whose name he hoped to exercise the real power. But the nominal rule

of Severus was confined to Italy, while, beyond the Alps, two Roman

generals—Marcellinus in Dalmatia, and Ægid´ius in Gaul—possessed the real

sovereignty, though without the imperial titles. The coasts of Italy,

Spain, and Greece were continually harassed by the Vandals, and Ricimer,

two years after the death of Severus (A. D. 467), appealed to the court

of Constantinople for aid against the common enemy, promising to accept

any sovereign whom the emperor would appoint.

=251.= Anthe´mius, a Byzantine nobleman, was designated as emperor

of the West, and received the allegiance of the Senate, the people,

and the barbarian troops. The fidelity of Count Ricimer was thought

to be secured by his marriage with the daughter of the new emperor. A

formidable attack upon the Vandals was made by the combined forces of the

East and the West; but it failed through the weakness or treachery of

Bas´ilis´cus, the Greek commander, who lost his immense fleet through the

secret management of Genseric. The Vandals recovered Sardinia and became

possessed of Sicily, whence they could ravage Italy more constantly than

ever.

The Goths, meanwhile, became dissatisfied with the foreign rule. Ricimer

retired to Milan, where, in concert with his people, he openly revolted,

marched with a Burgundian army to Rome, and forced the Senate to accept

a new emperor in the person of Olyb´rius, A. D. 472. Anthemius was

slain in the attack upon the city. Ricimer died forty days after his

victory, bequeathing his power to his nephew, Gund´obald, a Burgundian.

Olybrius died a month or two later, and Gundobald raised a soldier named

Glyce´rius to the vacant throne. The emperor of the East interfered

again, and appointed Julius Nepos—a nephew of Marcellinus of Dalmatia—who

was accepted by the Romans and Gauls, Glycerius being consoled for the

loss of his imperial titles by the safer and more peaceful dignity of

Bishop of Salo´na.

=252.= Scarcely was Julius invested with the insignia of his rank,

when he was driven from the country by a new sedition led by Ores´tes,

master-general of the armies, who placed upon the throne his own son,

Romulus Augustus. This last of the Western emperors, who bore, by a

curious coincidence, the names of the two founders of Rome and the

empire, was more commonly called Augus´tulus, in burlesque of the

imperial grandeur which mocked his youth and insignificance.

The mercenaries demanded one-third of the lands of Italy as the reward

of their services; and being refused, they sprang to arms again, slew

Orestes, deposed Augustulus, and made their own chief, Odo´acer, king

of Italy. The Roman Senate, in a letter to Zeno, emperor of the East,

surrendered the claim of their country to imperial rank, consented to

acknowledge Constantinople as the seat of government for the world,

but requested that Odoacer, with the title of “Patrician,” should be

intrusted with the diocese of Italy.

With the fall of the Western empire, Ancient History ends. But the

establishment of kingdoms by the northern nations marks the rise of a new

era, which, through centuries of turbulence, will open into the varied

and brilliant scenes of Modern History.

RECAPITULATION.

Alaric, invading Italy, is defeated by Stilicho. Gladiatorial

combats are forever abolished at Rome. Honorius fixes his

capital at Ravenna. Italy and Gaul are overrun by a pagan

host. Constantine becomes emperor in the extreme West, A. D.

407-411. Death of Stilicho and massacre of Gothic women and

children lead Alaric to a second invasion of Italy, A. D.

408-410. Rome is three times besieged, and finally given up to

plunder for six days. Alaric dies, A. D. 410, and is succeeded

by Adolphus, who marries the sister of Honorius, and founds a

Gothic kingdom in Spain and southern Gaul. Constantius, second

husband of Placidia, reigns as colleague of Honorius, A. D.

421; and his son, Valentinian III., succeeds to the whole

Western empire, A. D. 425-455. During the regency of Placidia,

the general Boniface, deceived by Aëtius, betrays Africa to

the Vandals. Gaul is invaded by Attila, king of the Huns, who

is defeated by Goths and Romans near Chalons, A. D. 451. He

ravages northern Italy; and fugitives from cities which he

destroys, found Venice on the Adriatic, A. D. 452. Valentinian

III. is assassinated; and his widow, to avenge his death, calls

in the Vandals, who plunder Rome fourteen days. Avitus (A. D.

455, 456) is proclaimed emperor in Gaul. Count Ricimer rebels,

and sets up first Marjorian (A. D. 457-461), then Severus (A.

D. 461-465), and finally applies for an emperor to the Eastern

court, which appoints Anthemius (A. D. 467-472). Ricimer

revolts again, and crowns Olybrius, who dies in a few months.

Glycerius (A. D. 473, 474) soon exchanges the crown for a

miter, and Julius Nepos is installed as sovereign. Orestes sets

up his own son, Romulus Augustus (A. D. 475, 476), the last

Roman emperor of the West. Odoacer becomes king of Italy, and

the Western empire is overthrown.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.

BOOK V.

1. What three successive forms of government in ancient Rome? § 8.

2. What races inhabited Italy? 9-11.

3. Describe, severally, their origin, character, and institutions.

4. Relate the traditions concerning the origin of Rome. 12, 13.

5. Describe the acts and characters of the first three kings. 13-16.

6. What tribes and classes made up the Roman population under

Tullus Hostilius? 16.

7. What changes were made by Ancus Martius and Tarquinius

Priscus? 17, 18.

8. Describe the constitution under Servius Tullius. 19-21.

9. The reign of Tarquin the Proud. 22.

10. The chief divinities and religious festivals of

the Romans. 23-25.

11. The oracles and modes of divination. 26-28.

12. The four sacred colleges. 28-30.

13. The ceremony of lustration. 31.

14. The government and condition of Rome after the

expulsion of the kings. 32-34.

15. The causes and effects of the first secession. 35, 36.

16. The Cassian, Publilian, Terentilian, and

Hortensian laws. 37, 40, 43, 46, 78.

17. Tell the story of Coriolanus. 42.

18. Of Cincinnatus and his son. 44, 45.

19. Describe the Laws of the Twelve Tables. 46-48.

20. What occasioned the second secession? 49-51.

21. What changes in government resulted from it? 51-54.

22. Describe the Veientine War and its consequences. 56, 57.

23. The invasion of Italy by the Gauls. 57, 58.

24. The sack and siege of Rome. 59, 60.

25. The condition of the Romans after the departure

of the Gauls. 61.

26. The treason of Marcus Manlius. 62, 63.

27. The Licinian laws. 64, 65.

28. The final expulsion of the Gauls. 66.

29. The character of the Samnites. 67, 68.

30. The First Samnite War. 69.

31. Relate the incidents of the Latin War. 70-72.

32. Describe the Second Samnite War, and the reduction of

the Æqui. 73-75.

33. The Third Samnite War, and the conquest of

the Sabines. 76-78.

34. What nations were allied against Rome, B. C. 283? 79, 80.

35. Describe the campaigns of Pyrrhus In Italy and Sicily. 81-85.

36. What changes among the Romans followed their conquest

of Italy? 86, 87.

37. Describe the origin and events of the First Punic War. 89-94.

38. What part was taken by Rome in the affairs of Greece? 95.

39. Describe the conquest of the Gauls in northern Italy. 96, 112.

40. The preparations by Carthage for the Second

Punic War. 97-99.

41. The invasion of Italy by Hannibal. 100-108.

42. The fate of Hasdrubal. 108, 107.

43. A Roman triumph. 109-111.

44. The wars of Rome in the East and West. 113, 114, 117.

45. The last Punic War. 115, 116.

46. Describe the conquest of Spain. 118, 119.

47. The condition of Rome after the foreign wars. 120, 121.

48. The policy and death of Tiberius Gracchus. 122, 123.

49. Of Scipio Æmilianus. Of

Caius Gracchus. 124-127.

50. The Jugurthine Wars. 128-132.

51. Tell the history of Marius. 130-136, 139-141.

52. Describe the Roman slave-code, and its effects in Sicily. 137.

53. The dictatorship of Sulla. 142-145.

54. The rebellion of Sertorius. 146, 147.

55. The War of the Gladiators. 148-150.

56. Relate the history of Pompey. 151-153, 155, 166-170.

57. Describe the conspiracy of Catiline. 154.

58. Relate the history and designs of Cæsar. 156-177.

59. Of the second triumvirate. 177-180.

60. Describe the three decisive battles of Pharsalia,

Philippi, and Actium. 169, 179, 180.

61. The city and empire of Rome under Augustus. 181, 182, 185.

62. The Roman operations in Germany. 183, 184.

63. The reign of Tiberius. 186-188.

64. Caligula. 189.

65. Claudius. 190.

66. Nero. 191-194.

67. How many emperors during A. D. 69? 195, 196.

68. Describe the reigns of Vespasian and his two sons. 197-199.

69. The five good emperors. 200-206.

70. The reign of the prætorians. 207.

71. The history of Severus and his sons. 208, 209.

72. The contrasted characters of the two grandsons

of Julia Mæsa. 210-212.

73. How many emperors in A. D. 238? 213, 214.

74. Describe the reigns of Philip and Decius. 215, 216.

75. The condition of Rome under Gallus. 217.

76. What foreign invaders under Valerian? 217.

77. Describe the reign of the Thirty Tyrants. 217.

78. What able rulers delayed the fall of the empire? 218, 219.

79. Describe the reigns of Carus and his sons. 220.

80. The new arrangement of the empire under Diocletian

and his colleagues. 221-227.

81. The revolt of Carausius. 223.

82. The changes in the empire, from Diocletian’s

abdication to the sole reign of Constantine. 227-230.

83. The reorganization of the Roman world by Constantine. 230.

84. What change of religion marked this reign? 231.

85. What foreign nations obtained settlements within

Roman boundaries? 232.

86. Tell the history of the sons of Constantine. 234.

87. Describe the character and career of Julian. 235, 236.

88. Who succeeded Jovian? 237.

89. Describe the reign of Valentinian. Of Valens. 238, 239.

90. The reign of Gratian and his brother. 240, 241.

91. The character and reign of Theodosius the Great. 241, 242.

92. What was the comparative duration of the Eastern and

Western empires? 243.

93. What barbarians invaded Italy during the reign of

Honorius? 243-246.

94. Tell the history of Placidia. 246, 247.

95. The extent of the Western empire under

Valentinian III. 247.

96. Describe the career of Alaric, and the battle of Chalons. 248, 249.

97. The successive captures of Rome by Goths

and Vandals. 245, 249.

98. How many sovereigns appointed by Count Ricimer? 250, 251.

99. How many by the court at Constantinople? 251.

100. Who was the last Roman emperor of the West? 252.

101. How many centuries had Rome existed from its foundation?

LIST OF BOOKS RECOMMENDED.

_The following works are recommended to the student who desires a more

complete account of the nations of antiquity._

Rawlinson’s History of the Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient

Eastern World.

Wilkinson’s Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians.

Heeren’s Researches into the Politics, Commerce, etc., of the

Ancient World.

Niebuhr’s Lectures on Ancient History.

Layard’s Nineveh.

Milman’s History of the Jews.

Stanley’s History of the Jewish Church.

Josephus’s Jewish Antiquities.

Herodotus. (Rawlinson’s translation, with illustrative essays,

is incomparably the best.)

Xenophon’s Cyropædia, Anabasis, and Memorabilia.

Grote’s History of Greece.

Curtius’s History of Greece.

Dr. Wm. Smith’s History of Greece, in a single volume.

Bulwer’s Athens: its Rise and Fall.

St. John’s The Hellenes: the Manners and Customs of Ancient

Greece.

Creasy’s Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World.

Niebuhr’s History of Rome.

Arnold’s History of Rome.

Mommsen’s History of Rome.

Forsyth’s Life of Cicero.

Selections from Cicero’s Orations.

Cæsar’s Commentaries.

Life of Cæsar, by Napoleon III.

Merivale’s History of the Romans under the Empire.

Gibbon’s History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.

_Among Stories, Poems, and Dramas illustrative of Ancient History, the

following are recommended—the first three especially to the youngest

readers._

Kingsley’s “Heroes.”

Hawthorne’s “Wonder-book” and “Tanglewood Tales.”

Mrs. Child’s “Philothea.”

Becker’s “Charicles” and “Gallus.”

Macaulay’s “Lays of Ancient Rome.”

Ware’s “Zenobia,” “Julian,” and “Probus.”

Mrs. Charles’s “Victory of the Vanquished.”

Kingsley’s “Hypatia.”

Shakespeare’s “Coriolanus,” “Julius Cæsar,” and “Antony and

Cleopatra.”

_Among collections of Engravings, the following should especially be

sought._

“Description of Egypt,” made by the Commission of _savans_

who accompanied the French army in 1798. Commonly called

“Napoleon’s Egypt.” 9 vols. Text, and 14 folio vols. Plates.

Fergusson’s “Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis Restored.”

Fergusson’s “Illustrated Handbook of Architecture.”

Botta’s “Monuments of Nineveh.”

Layard’s “Monuments of Nineveh.”

Penrose’s “Athenian Architecture.”

Stuart’s “Antiquities of Athens.”

Canina’s “Edifices of Ancient Rome.”

FOOTNOTES

[1] Scattered traditions of the same events have been found in several

nations. The most remarkable were in the writings of Berosus (see note,

p. 18), who, to his account of the Creation, added that the monstrous

living creatures which had floated in the darkness of the primeval ocean

perished at the appearance of light. These must have been the pre-adamite

animals which Geology has made known to us only within the present

century. Berosus describes a deluge, from which only righteous men were

saved.

[2] See Book III, §§ 35-37, 84-86.

[3] Herodotus, the Father of History, was a Greek of Halicarnassus, a

Doric city in Caria, and was born B. C. 484. He collected the materials

for his works by extensive travels and laborious research.

[4] Our word “shawl” belongs to the Sanskrit, the oldest known language

of India, showing that “India shawls” have been objects of luxury and

commerce from the earliest ages.

[5] See p. 10, and Gen. xi: 1-9.

[6] Berosus, a learned Babylonian, wrote a history of his own and

neighboring countries in three books, which are unfortunately lost. He

drew his information from records kept in the temple of Belus, from

popular traditions, and in part, probably, from the Jewish Scriptures.

Fragments have been preserved to us by later writers. He lived from the

reign of Alexander, 356-323 B. C., to that of Antiochus II, 261-246 B. C.

[7] The student’s memory may be aided by some explanation of the

long names of the Assyrian kings. They resemble the Hebrew in their

composition; and, as in that language, each may form a complete sentence.

Of the two, three, or four distinct words which always compose a royal

appellation, one is usually the name of a divinity. Thus, Tiglathi-nin =

“Worship be to Nin” (the Assyrian Hercules); Tiglath-pileser = “Worship

be to the Son of Zira;” Sargon = “The King is established;” Esar-haddon =

“Asshur has given a brother.”

[8] See § 32.

[9] His daughter Jezebel became the wife of Ahab, king of Israel.

His reign is marked in Phœnician annals by a drought which extended

throughout Syria.

[10] See p. 19.

[11] See § 40, p. 23.

[12] The battle of Carchemish. See p. 25.

[13] He lived in the reign of Ptolemy I, B. C. 323-283.

[14] See “Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid,” by Prof. Piazzi Smyth.

[15] See § 187.

[16] Josephus was a Jewish historian, born A. D. 37, the son of a priest,

and descended by his mother’s side from the same royal family with the

Herods. His greatest work is his “Jewish Antiquities,” in twenty books.

The history begins at the Creation of the World, and ends A. D. 66, with

the Revolt of the Jews against the Romans.

[17] See § 33.

[18] See Genesis xlvii: 18-26.

[19] The Phœnician name of Carthage signified the New City,

distinguishing it either from the neighboring Utica, whose name meant the

Old City, or from Byrsa, the first fortress of Dido. When New Carthage

(Carthagena) was built upon the coast of Spain, the original settlement

began to be called by the Romans _Carthago Vetus_, which is as if we

should say “Old Newtown.”

[20] See § 47.

[21] See Book I, §§ 38, 41.

[22] See Book I, § 59.

[23] See Book I, §§ 53, 54.

[24] The _Macro´bii_, so called by the Greeks because they were reputed

to live 120 years or more, were a tribe of extraordinary strength and

stature dwelling southward from Egypt. Some suppose them to have been

ancestors of the Somauli, near Cape Guardafui, while others place them

on the left bank of the Nile, in what is now Nubia. Their prisoners were

said to be fettered with golden chains, because gold with them was more

abundant and cheaper than iron. The bodies of their dead were inclosed in

columns of glass or crystal.

[25] See Book I, § 179.

[26] See Book I, § 175.

[27] See § 11. Also, Darius’s own account of the Imposture of the Magus,

p. 87.

[28] He was probably contemporary with Abraham.

[29] See Esther i: 1-4.

[30] One of these repasts cost half a million of dollars.

[31] See pp. 142-144.

[32] See note, p. 128.

[33] See §§ 23, 25.

[34] See note, p. 110.

[35] Homer was an Asiatic Greek who lived probably about B. C. 850. Seven

cities claimed the honor of his birth, which ancient critics commonly

accorded to Chios, and modern, to Smyrna. Many legends describe his

sorrowful and changeful life, shadowed by poverty and blindness; but

we can be sure of little except that he was the author of some of the

earliest and yet greatest poems in the world’s literature.

[36] The word Erinnyes meant _curses_, and hence the angry or persecuting

goddesses. Fearing to call these terrible beings by their real name,

the Greeks substituted the term Eumenides, which meant _soothed_ or

_benevolent_.

[37] For a specimen, see §§ 108-9, 114.

[38] My´us, Prie´ne, Eph´esus, Co´lophon, Leb´edos, Te´os, Er´ythræ,

Clazom´enæ, Phocæ´a, Mile´tus, Chi´os, and Sa´mos.

[39] See § 25.

[40] Of the Seven Wise Men, six were rulers and statesmen. The seven

were Solon of Athens, Periander of Corinth, Cleobulus of Lindus, Bias of

Prie´ne, Pittacus of Mytilene, Thales of Miletus, and Chilo of Sparta.

[41] See Book II, §§ 37, 39; Book III, §§ 99-102.

[42] The Panathenaic festival was celebrated every year from the time

of Theseus, in honor of Athena Polias, the guardian of the city. It

included torch races, musical and gymnastic contests, horse, foot, and

chariot races, and costly sacrifices. The greater Panathenæa took place

in the third year of every Olympiad. It was distinguished by a sacred

procession, bearing to her temple in the Erechtheum a crocus-colored

garment embroidered with representations of the victories of the goddess.

[43] See Book II, § 34.

[44] Almost every Grecian state was divided between two parties, which

preferred respectively _democracy_ and _oligarchy_; _i. e._, government

by many and by few.

[45] “The first Greeks,” says Herodotus, “who ever ran to meet a foe; the

first, too, who beheld without dismay the garb and armor of the Medes,

for hitherto in Greece the very name of Mede had excited terror.”

[46] Read the movements of Datis after the battle, p. 86.

[47] See p. 90, § 51.

[48] See p. 93.

[49] A small island in the Saronic Gulf, between Ægina and the coast of

Argolis.

[50] This exiled politician must not be confounded with Thucydides the

great historian, who was living at the same time.

[51] See note, p. 157.

[52] The words of Xenophon, who was present in Athens.

[53] The executioners who had put in effect the bloody sentences of the

tyrants.

[54] The god of healing, a son of Apollo.

[55] Though an Athenian, Xenophon was an exile, and preferred the

institutions of Sparta to those of his native city. Among the principal

works of this historian are the _Anabasis_, an account of the

rebellion of Cyrus the Younger, and the retreat of the Ten Thousand;

the _Hellenica_, a history of the Greeks from the close of the period

described by Thucydides to the battle of Mantinea, B. C. 362; the

_Cyropædia_, an historical romance in praise of Cyrus the Great; and the

_Memorabilia_, a defense of the memory of Socrates from the charge of

irreligion.

[56] See p. 163.

[57] So called from one of the Athenian envoys, who, being hereditary

_proxenus_ of Sparta (a term nearly corresponding to our modern

_consul_), had a leading part in the negotiation. His personal character

was worthless, and his influence slight.

[58] Aristotle was a native of Stagi´ra, a Chalcidian sea-port. His

father had been physician to Amyntas II., the father of Philip; and the

prince and the philosopher in their boyhood formed a friendship, which

outlasted the life of the former and was inherited by his son. The

enlarged political views of Alexander, his fondness for discovery and

physical science, his lively interest in literature, especially the poems

of Homer, and his love of the noble and great in character, were largely

due to his teacher’s influence. When he became the conqueror of Asia, he

caused rare collections of plants and animals, from all his provinces, to

be sent to Aristotle, who found in them the materials for valuable works

on Natural History.

[59] He is frequently called Ptolemy Lagi, from the name of his father,

Lagus.

[60] Brother of Philadelphus. (See § 55.)

[61] Read, in the Apocrypha, 2 Maccabees iii: 4-40.

[62] It should be noticed that the name Calabria is now applied to the

other peninsula of southern Italy, that which included the ancient

Bruttium. The name was changed about the eleventh century of the

Christian Era.

[63] A Patrician had at least three names: his own personal appellation,

as Ca´ius, Marcus, or Lu´cius; the name of his clan, and the name of

his family. Many Romans had a fourth name, derived from some personal

peculiarity or memorable deed. Thus Pub´lius Corne´lius Scip´io

Africa´nus belonged to the Cornelian _gens_, the Scipio family, and

received a surname from his brilliant achievements in Africa. His clients

bore the name Cornelius.

[64] The name of the City of the Seven Mountains had been given to Rome

when within much narrower limits. The _Septimontium_ included only the

Palatine, Esquiline, and Cælian, which were divided into smaller peaks or

eminences, seven in all.

[65] At a later period, when the Romans had become familiar with the

literature of the Greeks, an attempt was made to unite the mythologies

of the two nations. Some deities, like Apollo, were directly borrowed

from the Greeks; in other cases, some resemblance of office or character

caused the Greek and the Roman divinities to be considered the same.

Thus Jupiter was identified with Zeus; Minerva, the thinking goddess—the

Etruscan _Menerfa_—with Athena, etc. By order of the Delphic oracle or of

the Sibylline Books, living serpents, sacred to Æsculapius, were brought

from Epidaurus to Rome, to avert a pestilence, B. C. 293.

[66] For the probable form of this imprecation, see note, p. 276.

[67] A _jugerum_ was very nearly five-eighths of an acre.

[68] The form, which has been strictly preserved, may be of interest,

as illustrating Roman ideas: “Thou Janus, thou Jupiter, thou Mara our

father, thou Quirinus, thou Bellona; ye Lares, ye the nine gods, ye the

gods of our fathers’ land, ye whose power disposes both of us and of our

enemies, and ye also, gods of the dead, I pray you, I humbly beseech you

… that ye would prosper the people of Rome and the Quirites with all

might and victory, and that ye would visit the enemies of the people of

Rome … with terror, dismay, and death. And according to these words which

I have now spoken, so do I now, on the behalf of the commonwealth of the

Roman people … on behalf of the army, both the legions and the foreign

aids … devote the legions and the foreign aids of our enemies, along

with myself, to the gods of the dead and to the grave.” It was deemed

an impiety to ask for victory without making a sacrifice, for Nemesis

avenged unmingled prosperity no less than crime.

[69] _I. e._, to march between two spears planted in the ground and

surmounted by a third. Hence, our term “subjugation” = _sub jugum ire._

[70] The Mamertines, “Children of Mars,” were a troop of Italian

freebooters, formerly in the pay of Syracuse, but who had seized Messa´na

and other fortresses in the north-east of Sicily, massacred the people,

and made themselves independent.

[71] N. B. Not the great Hannibal, who was son of Hamilcar, and hero of

the _Second_ Punic War. “Punic” is only another form of the adjective

Phœnician, but is applied especially to the people of Carthage.

[72] Son of the Regulus who invaded Africa (§ 91), and who fell a victim

to Carthaginian vengeance.

[73] During the seventeen years of the Second Punic War, the free

citizens of Rome were diminished by one-fourth, and in Italy at large

300,000 people perished.

[74] This illustrious lady was a daughter of Scipio Africanus, the

greatest general save one, and, perhaps, the greatest character, whom

Rome ever produced. Cornelia, after the early death of her husband,

devoted herself to the education of her children, and was rewarded for

her care by their perfect respect and love. After the death of Caius, she

retired to Misenum, where her house became the resort of all the genius

and learning of the age. Cornelia not only spoke her own language with

the utmost elegance, but was well acquainted with Greek literature, and

her letters to her sons are considered the purest specimens of Latin

prose. She died in a good old age, and the people erected a statue to

her memory, with the simple inscription, “Cornelia, the Mother of the

Gracchi.”

[75] I came, I saw, I conquered.

[76] That of Pope Gregory XIII., A. D. 1582.

[77] This guard consisted of 10,000 Italian soldiers, quartered near Rome

for the security of the emperor’s person. And so great was its influence,

that, in the later days of the empire, it often assumed to dispose of the

crown without reference to Senate or people.

[78] Of the Antonines, the first is commonly called Antoninus Pius; the

second, Marcus Antoninus.

[79] So says Ammia´nus Marcelli´nus, an honest and usually trustworthy

historian, contemporary with Julian, and probably a pagan.

[80] A very numerous sect in Africa, opposed by Augustine, Bishop of

Hippo, and by an edict of Honorius.

INDEX.

A

Aahmes, Nefru-ari, 55.

Aa´ron, 40.

Abed´nego, 22.

Abi´jam, 42.

Abousir´, 52.

A´braham, 31.

Ab´salom, 38.

Aby´dus in Egypt, 53, 57.

in Mysia, 88, 89, 177.

Acade´mia, 150, 180.

Acan´thus, 188.

Ac´arna´nia, 106, 161.

Ac´cad, 17.

Acer´bas, 66.

Achæ´menes, 73.

brother of Xerxes, 88.

son of Xerxes, 93.

Achæ´us, 211.

Acha´ia, Acha´ians, 106, 115, 131, 161, 227, 229.

Achelo´us, 106.

Acrop´olis, 131, 140, 158.

Ac´tium, 105, 325.

Adher´bal, 299, 300.

Adiabe´ue, 339.

Adiman´tus, 140.

Adol´phus, 357.

Adoni´jah, 38.

Æge´an, 10, 105, 107, 109, 147, 148, 175, 179, 348.

Ægid´ius, 360.

Ægi´na, 91, 107, 137, 138, 155.

Æ´gos-Pot´ami, 179.

Æ´lla Capitoli´na, 336.

Æmilia´nus, emperor, 342.

Æmil´ius, 268.

L. Paulus, 289.

L. Paulus, son of the preceding, 228.

Æne´as, 249.

Ænia´nia, 106.

Æo´lia, Æo´lians, 108, 115, 131.

Æqui, 263-265, 277.

Æs´chines, 197.

Æs´chylus, 141.

Aë´tius, 358, 359.

Æto´lia, Æto´lians, 106, 226, 227, 293.

Africa, 48-70, 332, 333, 341, 342, 346, 348, 353, 357, 358.

Agamem´non, 109.

Age´nor, 110.

Agesila´us, 184-187, 190-195.

A´gis, 165, 166, 169, 173.

Ag´ni, 81.

Agric´ola, 334.

Agrigen´tum, 67, 133, 284.

Agrip´pa, 241, 325.

Ag´rippi´na, wife of Germanicus, 328, 330.

Ag´rippi´na, wife of Claudius, 331.

A´hab, 32, 40, 42.

Ahasue´rus, 88.

A´haz, 43.

Ahazi´ah, 42.

Ahriman´, 82.

Ahu´ro Maz´dao, (Ormazd), 81, 82.

Aix, 298, 302.

Alani, 356.

Al´aric, 356, 357.

Alba Longa, 250.

Albi´nus, 338.

Alcæ´us, 131.

Alcibi´ades, 168-172, 175-178, 269.

Alci´das, 165.

Alemæon´ids, 129, 136.

Aleman´ni, 342, 346, 348, 351-353.

Ale´ria, 284.

Alexan´der Balas, 213, 214, 220.

of Epirus, 276.

Jannæus, 239.

I. of Macedon, 142.

the Great, 16, 99-102, 202-206, 217.

Alexan´der of Phe´ræ, 193, 194.

Seve´rus, 340, 341.

Alexan´dra, 239.

Al´exandri´a in Egypt, 55, 204, 216, 217, 336, 342, 346.

Al´exandri´a on the Jaxartes, 204.

Allec´tus, 346.

Al´lia, 270.

Alps, 245, 288, 302, 348.

Alti´num, 359.

Alyat´tes, 23.

Am´alekites, 37.

Ama´sis, 25, 60, 133.

Amazi´ah, 42.

Ambra´cia, 161.

Ambro´sius, 355.

Ameneph´thes, 57.

Amenophe´um, 56.

Ammenemes III., 54.

Am´monites, 35-37.

Am´on, 43.

Amo´sis, 55, 62.

Amphip´olis, 168, 196, 201.

Amu´lius, 249.

Am´un, 58, 60, 63, 64, 77, 204.

Am´unoph III., 56.

Amy´clæ, 118, 121.

Amyn´tas, 188, 193.

I., 201.

Amyrtæ´us, 93.

Amy´tis, 93.

Anac´reon, 131.

Anacto´ria, 161.

Ana´pus, 172.

Anato´lia, 14, 29.

Anaxag´oras, 152.

A´nio, 249.

An´nius, 308.

Antal´cidas, 97, 187, 193.

Anthe´mius, 360.

Antig´onus, 207, 208.

Doson, 225, 226.

Gonatas, 224, 225.

Antig´onus, King of the Jews, 239.

An´tioch, 210, 336, 340, 350.

Anti´ochus I., Soter, 210, 224, 230.

II., Theos, 211.

III., the Great, 211-213, 237, 293.

IV., Epiph´anes, 213, 238.

V., Eu´pator, 213.

VI., 214.

VII., Side´tes, 214.

VIII., Grypus, 214, 215.

IX., Cyzice´nus, 214.

X., Eusebes, 215.

XI., 215.

XII., 215.

XIII., Asiaticus, 215.

Hierax, 211, 230.

Antip´ater, Regent of Macedonia, 207, 222.

Antipater, King of Macedonia, 223, 224.

Antipater, the Idumæan, 239.

Antiph´ilus, 217.

Antoni´nus, M. Aurelius, 336, 337.

T. Aurelius, 336, 337.

Anto´nius, 312.

Marcus, 221, 317, 323, 325.

Lucius, 324.

Apame´a, 210.

Apel´les, 217.

Ap´ennines, 245-247, 288.

Aphrodi´te, 111, 170.

A´pis, 63, 77.

Apol´lo, 91, 111, 114, 134.

Apollo´nia, 188, 226.

Apollo´nius, 217.

Ap´ries, 45, 60.

Apu´lia, Apulians, 247, 278, 304.

A’quæ Sextiæ (Aix), 297.

Aquile´ia, 350, 354, 358, 359.

Ara´bia, Arabians, 15, 19, 20, 42, 54, 56.

Ar´adus, 30.

Arama´ti, 81.

Ar´arat, 14, 29.

Arbe´la, 100, 101, 204.

Arbogas´tes, 354.

Arca´dia, Arcadians, 106, 121-123, 192-194.

Arca´dius, 355.

Ar´chela´us I. of Macedon, 201.

of Cappadocia, 234.

son of Herod, 241.

Ar´chias, 189.

Archida´mus, 151, 161-163.

Archime´des, 289.

A´res, 111, 138.

Argilius, 148.

Ar´golis, 106.

Argos, 97, 108, 118, 121, 123, 138, 161, 169, 192.

Ariara´thes IV., V., VI., 234.

Ariobarza´nes I., 234.

Ariovis´tus, 315.

Aristag´oras, 84.

Aristar´chus, 217.

Aristi´des, 86, 136.

Aristobu´lus, son of Hyrcanus, 239, 313.

Aristobu´lus, brother-in-law of Herod, 240.

Aristode´mus, the Heraclid, 114, 115.

Aristode´mus, of Messenia, 122.

of Sparta, 144.

Aristogi´ton, 129.

Aristom´enes, 122, 151.

Aristoni´cus, 231.

Aristoph´anes, 217.

Ar´istot´le, 202.

Arius, Arians, 349, 354.

Arme´nia, Armenians, 14, 19, 20, 232, 234, 235, 332, 336, 342, 346, 350.

Armin´ius, Herman, 327, 328.

Arsa´ces II., 211.

III., 212.

VI., 236.

Arsac´idæ, 236.

Ar´ses, 98, 99.

Arsin´oë, Crocododilopolis, 63.

port on the Red Sea, 218.

sister of Ptolemy II., 218.

sister of Ptolemy IV., 219.

Arre´tium, 279, 288.

Arsi´tes, 99.

Artaba´nus, 92.

Ar´tabaza´nes, 88.

Artaba´zus, 98, 196.

Artapher´nes, satrap, 85.

nephew of Darius, 85, 134.

Ar´taxerx´es I., Longim´anus, 82, 92-94.

II., Mnemon, 96-98, 187, 193.

III., Ochus, 98.

founder of the Sassanidæ, 340.

Artax´ias, 235.

Ar´temis, 111, 134, 173, 202.

A´sa, 40, 42, 58.

As´culum, 281.

Asia, 13-17, 48, 298.

Asia Minor, 14, 20, 29, 74, 203, 208, 212, 218, 233, 306, 342, 343.

As´kalon, 44, 60.

Aspami´tres, 92.

Assarana´dius, 20.

As´shur-ba´ni-pal, 20, 21, 59.

As´shur-da´nin-il II., 19.

As´shur-emid-ilin, 21.

As´shur-likh-khus, 19.

Asshur-nazir-pal I., 19, 40.

Assyr´ia, 15, 21, 23-25, 41, 59, 336.

Astar´te, Ashtaroth, 32, 44.

Asty´ages, 24, 73-75.

Athali´ah, 42.

Athe´na, 111, 112, 128, 136.

Athens, Athenians, 84-86, 91-98, 108, 122, 129-197, 222, 336, 342.

Athos, 85, 89.

Ath´ribis, 63.

Atlan´tic, 31, 69, 315.

At´las, 48.

Attali´a, 231.

At´talus, 357.

I., 227, 230.

II., Philadelphus, 231.

III., Philometor, 231.

At´tica, 86, 91, 92, 106, 124-133.

At´tila, 358, 359.

Aty´adæ, 29.

Augus´tulus, Romulus Augustus, 361.

Augus´tus, 326-328, 332.

Augustus, title, 326, 340, 346, 347.

Aurelian, 343.

Aure´olus, 343.

Auso´nians, 277.

Antro´nius, 312.

Avi´tos, 360.

Azari´ah, 42.

B

Ba´al, 32, 40, 42.

Ba´asha, 40, 42.

Ba´bel, 17.

Bab´ylon, Babylo´nia, Babylonians, 10, 15-29, 31, 32, 35, 43, 45, 56,

74, 77, 88, 93, 204, 208, 209, 213.

Bac´tra (Balkh), 13.

Bac´tria, 13, 204, 211, 235.

Bago´as, 98.

Baltic, 69.

Bar´ca, 50, 76.

Bar´des, 78, 87.

Barsi´ne, 205.

Bas´ilis´cus, 360.

Bata´vians, 334.

Behistûn´, 87.

Belshaz´zar, 28.

Beneven´tum, 277, 282.

Benha´dad, 19, 40-42.

Benjamin, 39, 42.

Ber´eui´ce, 211, 220.

Bero´sus, 9, 18.

Bery´tus (Beirût), 30, 32.

Bes´sus, 101, 204.

Beth´el, 40.

Beth-ho´ron, 35, 40-50, 228.

Beth´shan, Scythopolis, 44.

Bi´as, 126.

Bib´ulus, 314, 319.

Bithy´nia, 14, 210, 231, 232, 311.

Boccho´ris, 59.

Bœo´tia, Bœo´tians, 91, 92, 106, 114, 138, 155, 160, 161, 168, 190.

Bon´iface, 358.

Boö´des, 284.

Bor´sippa, 28.

Bos´phorus, 197.

Boulogne´, 346.

Bras´idas, 166, 168.

Bren´nus, 223.

Britain, 9, 133, 316, 334, 336, 343, 346, 350, 352, 354, 356, 358.

Britan´nicus, 331.

Brundis´ium, 306, 324.

Brut´tium, Brut´tians, 247, 279, 280.

Brutus, Decimus, 315.

Marcus, 323, 324.

Brygians, 85.

Bubas´tis, city, 58.

Pasht, 56.

Buceph´ala, 205.

Burgun´dians, 356, 358.

Bur´rhus, 331.

Busenti´nus, 357.

Byb´lus, 30, 155.

Byr´sa, 66.

Byzan´tium, 85, 133, 145, 158, 196, 202, 348, 349.

C

Cabi´ri, 32.

Cadme´a, 108, 188.

Cad´mus, 108.

Cæ´lian Hill, 250, 251.

Cæ´pio, 304.

Cæsar, title, 334, 335, 339, 340, 344, 346, 350, 351.

Cæsar, Caius Julius, 313-323,

L., 304.

Cæsare´a, 240.

Cala´bria, 131, 247.

Ca´lah, 19.

Caledonians, 339.

Calig´ula, 241, 330.

Cal´lias, 191.

Callim´achus, 217.

Cal´neh, 17.

Camby´ses, 60, 76-78.

Camil´lus, 269, 271, 273.

L. Furius, 273.

Campagna, 246.

Campa´nia, Campa´nians, 246, 249.

Ca´naan, 34, 35.

Canaries, 67.

Can´næ, 289, 290.

Cape´na, 270.

Cap´itoline, 250, 251, 253, 272, 273, 292.

Cappado´cia, 14, 29, 74, 89, 95, 232-235.

Cap´ua, 249, 306, 308.

Car´acal´la, 339.

Carau´sius, 346.

Car´chemish, 25, 31, 44, 60.

Caria, Carians, 14, 85, 196, 227.

Cari´uns, 344.

Carmel, 15, 40.

Carthage, Carthaginians, 31, 48, 50, 66-70, 76, 133, 281, 283-291, 293,

294, 299, 322, 358.

Carthage´na, 66, 287, 359.

Car´rhæ, 316, 346.

Ca´rus, 344.

Cas´ca, 323.

Cassan´der, 207.

Cassius, Avidius, 337.

Caius, 317, 324.

Sp., 261, 262.

Cas´sivelau´nus, 316.

Castor, 260.

Catali´na, L. Sergius, 310, 312.

Cat´ana, 171, 172.

Ca´to, censor, 293.

Marcus, 316, 317, 321.

Cat´ulus, 302.

Can´casus, 23.

Cau´dine Forks, 277.

Cau´nians, 85.

Cecro´pia, 108.

Ce´crops, 108.

Cec´ryphali´n, 154.

Cephalle´nia, 107, 155, 161, 190.

Cephis´sus, 114.

Cerau´nus, 210, 217.

Ce´res, 256.

Ceylon, 31.

Chærone´a, 156, 190.

Chalce´don, 233, 343.

Chalcid´ice, 133.

Chal´cis, 155.

Chaldæ´a, 15, 17, 18.

Chaloas´, 359.

Char´icles, 173.

Charila´us, 119.

Cheops, 52.

Cher´sone´sus, Thracian, 86, 127, 196, 212.

Chi´lo, 126.

Chi´na, 16, 17.

Chin-nong, 17.

Chi´os, 14, 95, 115, 161, 196, 227.

Choras´mia, 13.

Chos´roes, 350.

Christians, 331, 336-338, 342, 347, 352.

Cic´ero, Marcus Tullius, 310, 312, 323, 324.

Cili´cia, 14, 29.

Cim´bri, 301, 302.

Ci´mon, 148-156.

Cin´cinna´tus, 264, 265.

Cin´eas, 280.

Cin´na, 305, 306.

Cin´nelada´nus, 25.

Cir´cus Max´imus, 252.

Cirrha´, 121.

Cir´ta, 358.

Cithæ´ron, 106, 143.

Claudius, Appius, 263, 266-268.

Censor, 280, 283.

Consul, 284.

I., Emperor, 330, 331.

II., Emperor, 343.

father-in-law of Gracchus, 297.

Cleob´ulus, 126.

Cleom´brotus, 143, 189-192.

Cleom´enes, 130, 138.

of Macedon, 225.

Cleon, 162, 164, 166, 167.

Cleopa´tra, last Queen of Macedon, 208.

last Queen of Egypt, 221, 319, 320, 325.

sister of Ptolemy Eupator, 220.

of Syria, 214.

Clisthenes, 129, 130, 152.

Clitus, 205.

Clu´sium, 260.

Cly´pea, 284.

Co´drus, 124.

Col´chis, 350.

Colise´um, Flavian amphitheater, 334, 356.

Com´modus, 338.

Concor´dia, 359.

Con´stantine I., 347-349.

II., 350, 351.

Constantine III., 356, 357.

Constans, 350.

Con´stantino´ple, 348, 353, 361.

Constan´tius, Chlorus, 346, 347.

II., 350, 351.

III., 357.

Cop´tos, 55.

Cor´bulo, 332.

Corcy´ra, 107, 158, 161, 165, 171, 190, 191.

Corfin´ium, 304, 318.

Cor´inth, 97, 106, 122, 126, 137, 153, 159, 202, 208, 294, 322, 342.

Coriola´nus, Caius Marcius, 263, 264.

Cori´oli, 263.

Corne´lia, 299.

Corne´lius, 251, 307.

Coronæ´a, 157, 196.

Cor´sica, 67-69, 247, 284, 286, 293.

Corupe´dion, 210.

Cos, 115, 196.

Cotta, 233.

Crassus, Licinius, 231.

M. Licinius, triumvir, 306, 309, 310, 314-316.

Crat´erus, 207.

Cra´this, 132.

Crem´era, 262.

Cresphon´tes, 114, 115.

Crete, 54, 107, 109, 121, 125.

Creu´sis, 191.

Crime´a, 232.

Crispus, 348, 349.

Crital´la, 89.

Critias, 181.

Crœsus, 29, 30, 60, 74, 123.

Croto´na, 131, 132.

Ctes´iphon, 344, 352.

Cu´mæ, 131, 257.

Cunax´a, 96.

Cu´rio, 318.

Cu´rius Denta´tus, 278, 279, 282.