[1] Sir H. Yule, _The Book of Ser Marco Polo_, bk. i. ch. xxxvi. (3rd
ed., London, 1903).
KHOTIN, or KHOTEEN (variously written Khochim, Choczim, and Chocim), a
fortified town of South Russia, in the government of Bessarabia, in 48°
30´ N. and 26° 30´ E., on the right bank of the Dniester, near the
Austrian (Galician) frontier, and opposite Podolian Kamenets. Pop.
(1897), 18,126. It possesses a few manufactures (leather, candles, beer,
shoes, bricks), and carries on a considerable trade, but has always been
of importance mainly as a military post, defending one of the most
frequented passages of the Dniester. In the middle ages it was the seat
of a Genoese colony; and it has been in Polish, Turkish and Austrian
possession. The chief events in its annals are the defeat of the Turks
in 1621 by Ladislaus IV., of Poland, in 1673 by John Sobieski, of
Poland, and in 1739 by the Russians under Münnich; the defeat of the
Russians by the Turks in 1768; the capture by the Russians in 1769, and
by the Austrians in 1788; and the occupation by the Russians in 1806. It
finally passed to Russia with Bessarabia in 1812 by the peace of
Bucharest.
KHULNA, a town and district of British India, in the Presidency division
of Bengal. The town stands on the river Bhairab, and is the terminus of
the Bengal Central railway, 109 m. E. of Calcutta. Pop. (1901), 10,426.
It is the most important centre of river-borne trade in the delta.
The DISTRICT OF KHULNA lies in the middle of the delta of the Ganges,
including a portion of the Sundarbans or seaward fringe of swamps. It
was formed out of Jessore in 1882. Area (excluding the Sundarbans), 2077
sq. m. Besides the Sundarbans, the north-east part of the district is
swampy; the north-west is more elevated and drier, while the central
part, though low-lying, is cultivated. The whole is alluvial. In 1901
the population was 1,253,043, showing an increase of 6% in the decade.
Rice is the principal crop; mustard, jute and tobacco are also grown,
and the fisheries are important. Sugar is manufactured from the date
palm. The district is entered by the Bengal Central railway, but by far
the greater part of the traffic is carried by water.
See _District Gazetteer_ (Calcutta, 1908).
KHUNSAR, a town of Persia, sometimes belonging to the province of
Isfahan, at others to Irak, 96 m. N.W. of Isfahan, in 33° 9´ N., 50° 23´
E., at an elevation of 7600 ft. Pop., about 10,000. It is picturesquely
situated on both sides of a narrow valley through which the Khunsar
River, a stream about 12 ft. wide, flows in a north-east direction to
Kuom. The town and its fine gardens and orchards straggle some 6 m.
along the valley with a mean breadth of scarcely half a mile. There is a
great profusion of fruit, the apples yielding a kind of cider which,
however, does not keep longer than a month. The climate is cool in
summer and cold in winter. There are five caravanserais, three mosques
and a post office.
KHURJA, a town of British India, in the Bulandshahr district of the
United Provinces, 27 m. N.W. of Aligarh, near the main line of the East
Indian railway. Pop. (1901), 29,277. It is an important centre of trade
in grain, indigo, sugar and _ghi_, and has cotton gins and presses and a
manufacture of pottery. Jain traders form a large and wealthy class; and
the principal building in the town is a modern Jain temple, a fine domed
structure richly carved and ornamented in gold and colours.
KHYBER PASS, the most important of the passes which lead from
Afghanistan into India. It is a narrow defile winding between cliffs of
shale and limestone 600 to 1000 ft. high, stretching up to more lofty
mountains behind. No other pass in the world has possessed such
strategic importance or retains so many historic associations as this
gateway to the plains of India. It has probably seen Persian and Greek,
Seljuk, Tatar, Mongol and Durani conquerors, with the hosts of Alexander
the Great, Mahmud of Ghazni, Jenghiz Khan, Timur, Baber, Nadir Shah,
Ahmed Shah, and numerous other warrior chiefs pass and repass through
its rocky defiles during a period of 2000 years. The mountain barrier
which separates the Peshawar plains from the Afghan highlands differs in
many respects from the mountain barrier which intervenes between the
Indus plains and the plateau farther south. To the south this barrier
consists of a series of flexures folded parallel to the river, through
which the plateau drainage breaks down in transverse lines forming
gorges and clefts as it cuts through successive ridges. West of Peshawar
the strike of the mountain systems is roughly from west to east, and
this formation is maintained with more or less regularity as far south
as the Tochi River and Waziristan. Almost immediately west of Peshawar,
and stretching along the same parallel of latitude from the meridian of
Kabul to within ten miles of the Peshawar cantonment, is the great
central range of the Safed Koh, which forms throughout its long,
straight line of rugged peaks the southern wall, or water-divide, of the
Kabul River basin. About the meridian of 71 E. it forks, sending off to
the north-east what is locally known as a spur to the Kabul River, but
which is geographically only part of that stupendous water-divide which
hedges in the Kunar and Chitral valleys, and, under the name of the
Shandur Range, unites with the Hindu Kush near the head of the
Taghdumbash Pamir. The Kabul River breaks through this northern spur of
the Safed Koh; and in breaking through it is forced to the northward in
a curved channel or trough, deeply sunk in the mountains between
terrific cliffs and precipices, where its narrow waterway affords no
foothold to man or beast for many miles. To reach the Kabul River within
Afghan territory it is necessary to pass over this water-divide; and the
Khyber stream, flowing down from the pass at Landi Kotal to a point in
the plains opposite Jamrud, 9 m. W. of Peshawar, affords the
opportunity.
Pursuing the main road from Peshawar to Kabul, the fort of Jamrud, which
commands the British end of the Khyber Pass, lies some 11 m. W. of
Peshawar. The road leads through a barren stony plain, cut up by
water-courses and infested by all the worst cut-throats in the Peshawar
district. Some three miles beyond Jamrud the road enters the mountains
at an opening called Shadi Bagiar, and here the Khyber proper begins.
The highway runs for a short distance through the bed of a ravine, and
then joins the road made by Colonel Mackeson in 1839-1842, until it
ascends on the left-hand side to a plateau called Shagai. From here can
be seen the fort of Ali Masjid, which commands the centre of the pass,
and which has been the scene of more than one famous siege. Still going
westward the road turns to the right, and by an easy zigzag descends to
the river of Ali Masjid, and runs along its bank. The new road along
this cliff was made by the British during the Second Afghan War
(1879-80), and here is the narrowest part of the Khyber, not more than
15 ft. broad, with the Rhotas hill on the right fully 2000 ft. overhead.
Some three miles farther on the valley widens, and on either side lie
the hamlets and some sixty towers of the Zakka Khel Afridis. Then comes
the Loargi Shinwari plateau, some seven miles in length and three in its
widest part, ending at Landi Kotal, where is another British fort, which
closes this end of the Khyber and overlooks the plains of Afghanistan.
After leaving Landi Kotal the great Kabul highway passes between low
hills, until it debouches on the Kabul River and leads to Dakka. The
whole of the Khyber Pass from end to end lies within the country of the
Afridis, and is now recognized as under British control. From Shadi
Bagiar on the east to Landi Kotal on the west is about 20 m. in a
straight line.
The Khyber has been adopted by the British as the main road to Kabul,
but its difficulties (before they were overcome by British engineers)
were such that it was never so regarded by former rulers of India. The
old road to India left the Kabul River near its junction with the Kunar,
and crossed the great divide between the Kunar valley and Bajour; then
it turned southwards to the plains. During the first Afghan War the
Khyber was the scene of many skirmishes with the Afridis and some
disasters to the British troops. In July 1839 Colonel Wade captured the
fortress of Ali Masjid. In 1842, when Jalalabad was blockaded, Colonel
Moseley was sent to occupy the same fort, but was compelled to evacuate
it after a few days owing to scarcity of provisions. In April of the
same year it was reoccupied by General Pollock in his advance to Kabul.
It was at Ali Masjid that Sir Neville Chamberlain's friendly mission to
the amir Shere Ali was stopped in 1878, thus causing the second Afghan
War; and on the outbreak of that war Ali Masjid was captured by Sir
Samuel Browne. The treaty which closed the war in May 1879 left the
Khyber tribes under British control. From that time the pass was
protected by jezailchis drawn from the Afridi tribe, who were paid a
subsidy by the British government. For 18 years, from 1879 onward,
Colonel R. Warburton controlled the Khyber, and for the greater part of
that time secured its safety; but his term of office came to an end
synchronously with the wave of fanaticism which swept along the
north-west border of India during 1897. The Afridis were persuaded by
their mullahs to attack the pass, which they themselves had guaranteed.
The British government were warned of the intended movement, but only
withdrew the British officers belonging to the Khyber Rifles, and left
the pass to its fate. The Khyber Rifles, deserted by their officers,
made a half-hearted resistance to their fellow-tribesmen, and the pass
fell into the hands of the Afridis, and remained in their possession for
some months. This was the chief cause of the Tirah Expedition of 1897.
The Khyber Rifles were afterwards strengthened, and divided into two
battalions commanded by four British officers.
See _Eighteen Years in the Khyber_, by Sir Robert Warburton (1900);
_Indian Borderland_, by Sir T. Holdich (1901). (T. H. H.*)
KIAKHTA, a town of Siberia, one of the chief centres of trade between
Russia and China, on the Kiakhta, an affluent of the Selenga, and on an
elevated plain surrounded by mountains, in the Russian government of
Transbaikalia, 320 m. S.W. of Chita, the capital, and close to the
Chinese frontier, in 50° 20´ N., 106° 40´ E. Besides the lower town or
Kiakhta proper, the municipal jurisdiction comprises the fortified upper
town of Troitskosavsk, about 2 m. N., and the settlement of Ust-Kiakhta,
10 m. farther distant. The lower town stands directly opposite to the
Chinese emporium of Maimachin, is surrounded by walls, and consists
principally of one broad street and a large exchange courtyard. From
1689 to 1727 the trade of Kiakhta was a government monopoly, but in the
latter year it was thrown open to private merchants, and continued to
improve until 1860, when the right of commercial intercourse was
extended along the whole Russian-Chinese frontier. The annual December
fairs for which Kiakhta was formerly famous, and also the regular
traffic passing through the town, have considerably fallen off since
that date. The Russians exchange here leather, sheepskins, furs, horns,
woollen cloths, coarse linens and cattle for teas (in value 95% of the
entire imports), porcelain, rhubarb, manufactured silks, nankeens and
other Chinese produce. The population, including Ust-Kiakhta (5000) and
Troitskosavsk (9213 in 1897), is nearly 20,000.
KIANG-SI, an eastern province of China, bounded N. by Hu-peh and
Ngan-hui, S. by Kwang-tung, E. by Fu-kien, and W. by Hu-nan. It has an
area of 72,176 sq. m., and a population returned at 22,000,000. It is
divided into fourteen prefectures. The provincial capital is Nan-ch'ang
Fu, on the Kan Kiang, about 35 m. from the Po-yang Lake. The whole
province is traversed in a south-westerly and north-easterly direction
by the Nan-shan ranges. The largest river is the Kan Kiang, which rises
in the mountains in the south of the province and flows north-east to
the Po-yang Lake. It was over the Meiling Pass and down this river that,
in old days, embassies landing at Canton proceeded to Peking. During the
summer time it has water of sufficient depth for steamers of light draft
as far as Nan-ch'ang, and it is navigable by native craft for a
considerable distance beyond that city. Another river of note is the
Chang Kiang, which has its source in the province of Ngan-hui and flows
into the Po-yang Lake, connecting in its course the Wu-yuen district,
whence come the celebrated "Moyune" green teas, and the city of
King-te-chên, celebrated for its pottery, with Jao-chow Fu on the lake.
The black "Kaisow" teas are brought from the Ho-kow district, where they
are grown, down the river Kin to Juy-hung on the lake, and the Siu-ho
connects by a navigable stream I-ning Chow, in the neighbourhood of
which city the best black teas of this part of China are produced, with
Wu-ching, the principal mart of trade on the lake. The principal
products of the province are tea, China ware, grass-cloth, hemp, paper,
tobacco and tallow. Kiu-kiang, the treaty port of the province, opened
to foreign trade in 1861, is on the Yangtsze-kiang, a short distance
above the junction of the Po-yang Lake with that river.
KIANG-SU, a maritime province of China, bounded N. by Shantung, S. by
Cheh-kiang, W. by Ngan-hui, and E. by the sea. It has an area of 45,000
sq. m., and a population estimated at 21,000,000. Kiang-su forms part of
the great plain of northern China. There are no mountains within its
limits, and few hills. It is watered as no other province in China is
watered. The Grand Canal runs through it from south to north; the
Yangtsze-kiang crosses its southern portion from west to east; it
possesses several lakes, of which the T'ai-hu is the most noteworthy,
and numberless streams connect the canal with the sea. Its coast is
studded with low islands and sandbanks, the results of the deposits
brought down by the Hwang-ho. Kiang-su is rich in places of interest.
Nanking, "the Southern Capital," was the seat of the Chinese court until
the beginning of the 15th century, and it was the headquarters of the
T'ai-p'ing rebels from 1853, when they took the city by assault, to
1864, when its garrison yielded to Colonel Gordon's army. Hang-chow Fu
and Su-chow Fu, situated on the T'ai-hu, are reckoned the most beautiful
cities in China. "Above there is Paradise, below are Su and Hang," says
a Chinese proverb. Shang-hai is the chief port in the province. In 1909
it was connected by railway (270 m. long) via Su-Chow and Chin-kiang
with Nanking. Tea and silk are the principal articles of commerce
produced in Kiang-su, and next in importance are cotton, sugar and
medicines. The silk manufactured in the looms of Su-chow is famous all
over the empire. In the mountains near Nanking, coal, plumbago, iron ore
and marble are found. Shang-hai, Chin-kiang, Nanking and Su-chow are the
treaty ports of the province.
KIAOCHOW BAY, a large inlet on the south side of the promontory of
Shantung, in China. It was seized in November 1897 by the German fleet,
nominally to secure reparation for the murder of two German missionaries
in the province of Shantung. In the negotiations which followed, it was
arranged that the bay and the land on both sides of the entrance within
certain defined lines should be leased to Germany for 99 years. During
the continuance of the lease Germany exercises all the rights of
territorial sovereignty, including the right to erect fortifications.
The area leased is about 117 sq. m., and over a further area, comprising
a zone of some 32 m., measured from any point on the shore of the bay,
the Chinese government may not issue any ordinances without the consent
of Germany. The native population in the ceded area is about 60,000. The
German government in 1899 declared Kiaochow a free port. By arrangement
with the Chinese government a branch of the Imperial maritime customs
has been established there for the collection of duties upon goods
coming from or going to the interior, in accordance with the general
treaty tariff. Trade centres at Ts'ingtao, a town within the bay. The
country in the neighbourhood is mountainous and bare, but the lowlands
are well cultivated. Ts'ingtao is connected by railway with Chinan Fu,
the capital of the province; a continuation of the same line provides
for a junction with the main Lu-Han (Peking-Hankow) railway. The value
of the trade of the port during 1904 was £2,712,145 (£1,808,113 imports
and £904,032 exports).
KICKAPOO ("he moves about"), the name of a tribe of North American
Indians of Algonquian stock. When first met by the French they were in
central Wisconsin. They subsequently removed to the Ohio valley. They
fought on the English side in the War of Independence and that of 1812.
In 1852 a large band went to Texas and Mexico and gave much trouble to
the settlers; but in 1873 the bulk of the tribe was settled on its
present reservation in Oklahoma. They number some 800, of whom about a
third are still in Mexico.
KIDD, JOHN (1775-1851), English physician, chemist and geologist, born
at Westminster on the 10th of September 1775, was the son of a naval
officer, Captain John Kidd. He was educated at Bury St Edmunds and
Westminster, and afterwards at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated
B.A. in 1797 (M.D. in 1804). He also studied at Guy's Hospital, London
(1797-1801), where he was a pupil of Sir Astley Cooper. He became reader
in chemistry at Oxford in 1801, and in 1803 was elected the first
Aldrichian professor of chemistry. He then voluntarily gave courses of
lectures on mineralogy and geology: these were delivered in the dark
chambers under the Ashmolean Museum, and there J. J. and W. D.
Conybeare, W. Buckland, C. G. B. Daubeny and others gained their first
lessons in geology. Kidd was a popular and instructive lecturer, and
through his efforts the geological chair, first held by Buckland, was
established. In 1818 he became a F.R.C.P.; in 1822 regius professor of
medicine in succession to Sir Christopher Pegge; and in 1834 he was
appointed keeper of the Radcliffe Library. He delivered the Harveian
oration before the Royal College of Physicians in 1834. He died at
Oxford on the 7th of September 1851.
PUBLICATIONS.--_Outlines of Mineralogy_ (2 vols., 1809); _A Geological
Essay on the Imperfect Evidence in Support of a Theory of the Earth_
(1815); _On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical
Condition of Man_, 1833 (Bridgewater Treatise).
KIDD, THOMAS (1770-1850), English classical scholar and schoolmaster,
was born in Yorkshire. He was educated at Giggleswick School and Trinity
College, Cambridge. He held numerous scholastic and clerical
appointments, the last being the rectory of Croxton, near Cambridge,
where he died on the 27th of August 1850. Kidd was an intimate friend of
Porson and Charles Burney the younger. He contributed largely to
periodicals, chiefly on classical subjects, but his reputation mainly
rests upon his editions of the works of other scholars: _Opuscula
Ruhnkeniana_ (1807), the minor works of the great Dutch scholar David
Ruhnken; _Miscellanea Critica_ of Richard Dawes (2nd ed., 1827); _Tracts
and Miscellaneous Criticisms_ of Richard Porson (1815). He also
published an edition of the works of Horace (1817) based upon Bentley's
recension.
KIDD, WILLIAM [CAPTAIN KIDD] (c. 1645-1701), privateer and pirate, was
born, perhaps, in Greenock, Scotland, but his origin is quite obscure.
He told Paul Lorraine, the ordinary of Newgate, that he was "about 56"
at the time of his condemnation for piracy in 1701. In 1691 an award
from the council of New York of £150 was given him for his services
during the disturbances in the colony after the revolution of 1688. He
was commissioned later to chase a hostile privateer off the coast, is
described as an owner of ships, and is known to have served with credit
against the French in the West Indies. In 1695 he came to London with a
sloop of his own to trade. Colonel R. Livingston (1654-1724), a
well-known New York landowner, recommended him to the newly appointed
colonial governor Lord Bellomont, as a fit man to command a vessel to
cruise against the pirates in the Eastern seas (see PIRATE).
Accordingly the "Adventure Galley," a vessel of 30 guns and 275 tons,
was privately fitted out, and the command given to Captain Kidd, who
received the king's commission to arrest and bring to trial all pirates,
and a commission of reprisals against the French. Kidd sailed from
Plymouth in May 1696 for New York, where he filled up his crew, and in
1697 reached Madagascar, the pirates' principal rendezvous. He made no
effort whatever to hunt them down. On the contrary he associated himself
with a notorious pirate named Culliford. The fact would seem to be that
Kidd meant only to capture French ships. When he found none he captured
native trading vessels, under pretence that they were provided with
French passes and were fair prize, and he plundered on the coast of
Malabar. During 1698-1699 complaints reached the British government as
to the character of his proceedings. Lord Bellomont was instructed to
apprehend him if he should return to America. Kidd deserted the
"Adventure" in Madagascar, and sailed for America in one of his prizes,
the "Quedah Merchant," which he also left in the West Indies. He reached
New England in a small sloop with several of his crew and wrote to
Bellomont, professing his ability to justify himself and sending the
governor booty. He was arrested in July 1699, was sent to England and
tried, first for the murder of one of his crew, and then with others for
piracy. He was found guilty on both charges, and hanged at Execution
Dock, London, on the 23rd of May 1701. The evidence against him was that
of two members of his crew, the surgeon and a sailor who turned king's
evidence, but no other witnesses could be got in such circumstances, as
the judge told him when he protested. "Captain Kidd's Treasure" has been
sought by various expeditions and about £14,000 was recovered from
Kidd's ship and from Gardiner's Island (off the E. end of Long Island);
but its magnitude was palpably exaggerated. He left a wife and child at
New York. The so-called ballad about him is a poor imitation of the
authentic chant of Admiral Benbow.
Much has been written about Kidd, less because of the intrinsic
interest of his career than because the agreement made with him by
Bellomont was the subject of violent political controversy. The best
popular account is in _An Historical Sketch of Robin Hood and Captain
Kidd_ by W. W. Campbell (New York, 1853), in which the essential
documents are quoted. But see PIRATE.
KIDDERMINSTER, a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough of
Worcestershire, England, 135½ m. N.W. by W. from London and 15 m. N. of
Worcester by the Great Western railway, on the river Stour and the
Staffordshire and Worcestershire canal. Pop. (1901), 24,692. The parish
church of All Saints, well placed above the river, is a fine Early
English and Decorated building, with Perpendicular additions. Of other
buildings the principal are the town hall (1876), the corporation
buildings, and the school of science and art and free library. There is
a free grammar school founded in 1637. A public recreation ground,
Brinton Park, was opened in 1887. Richard Baxter, who was elected by the
townsfolk as their minister in 1641, was instrumental in saving the town
from a reputation of ignorance and depravity caused by the laxity of
their clergy. He is commemorated by a statue, as is Sir Rowland Hill,
the introducer of penny postage, who was born here in 1795.
Kidderminster is chiefly celebrated for its carpets. The permanency of
colour by which they are distinguished is attributed to the properties
of the water of the Stour, which is impregnated with iron and fuller's
earth. Worsted spinning and dyeing are also carried on, and there are
iron foundries, tinplate works, breweries, malthouses, &c. The
parliamentary borough returns one member. The town is governed by a
mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1214 acres.
In 736 lands upon the river Stour, called Stour in Usmere, which have
been identified with the site of Kidderminster (_Chideminstre_), were
given to Earl Cyneberght by King Æthelbald to found a monastery. If this
monastery was ever built, it was afterwards annexed to the church of
Worcester, and the lands on the Stour formed part of the gift of
Coenwulf, king of the Mercians, to Deneberht, bishop of Worcester, but
were exchanged with the same king in 816 for other property. At the
Domesday Survey, Kidderminster was still in the hands of the king and
remained a royal manor until Henry II. granted it to Manser Biset. The
poet Edmund Waller was one of the 17th century lords of the manor. The
town was possibly a borough in 1187 when the men paid £4 to an aid. As a
royal possession it appears to have enjoyed various privileges in the
12th century, among them the right of choosing a bailiff to collect the
toll and render it to the king, and to elect six burgesses and send them
to the view of frankpledge twice a year. The first charter of
incorporation, granted in 1636, appointed a bailiff and 12 capital
burgesses forming a common council. The town was governed under this
charter until the Municipal Reform Act of 1835. Kidderminster sent two
members to the parliament of 1295, but was not again represented until
the privilege of sending one member was conferred by the Reform Act of
1832. The first mention of the cloth trade for which Kidderminster was
formerly noted occurs in 1334, when it was enacted that no one should
make woollen cloth in the borough without the bailiff's seal. At the end
of the 18th century the trade was still important, but it began to
decline after the invention of machinery, probably owing to the poverty
of the manufacturers. The manufacture of woollen goods was however
replaced by that of carpets, introduced in 1735. At first only the
"Kidderminster" carpets were made, but in 1749 a Brussels loom was set
up in the town and Brussels carpets were soon produced in large
quantities.
See _Victoria County History: Worcestershire_; J. R. Burton, _A
History of Kidderminster, with Short Accounts of some Neighbouring
Parishes_ (1890).
KIDNAPPING (from _kid_, a slang term for a child, and _nap_ or _nab_, to
steal), originally the stealing and carrying away of children and others
to serve as servants or labourers in the American plantations; it was
defined by Blackstone as the forcible abduction or stealing away of a
man, woman or child from their own country and sending them into
another. The difference between kidnapping, abduction (q.v.) and false
imprisonment is not very great; indeed, kidnapping may be said to be a
form of assault and false imprisonment, aggravated by the carrying of
the person to some other place. The term is, however, more commonly
applied in England to the offence of taking away children from the
possession of their parents. By the Offences against the Person Act
1861, "whosoever shall unlawfully, by force or fraud, lead or take away
or decoy or entice away or detain any child under the age of fourteen
years with intent to deprive any parent, guardian or other person having
the lawful care or charge of such child of the possession of such child,
or with intent to steal any article upon or about the person of such
child, to whomsoever such article may belong, and whosoever shall with
any such intent receive or harbour any such child, &c.," shall be guilty
of felony, and is liable to penal servitude for not more than seven
years, or to imprisonment for any term not more than two years with or
without hard labour. The abduction or unlawfully taking away an
unmarried girl under sixteen out of the possession and against the will
of her father or mother, or any other person having the lawful care or
charge of her, is a misdemeanour under the same act. The term is used in
much the same sense in the United States.
The kidnapping or forcible taking away of persons to serve at sea is
treated under IMPRESSMENT.
KIDNEY DISEASES.[1] (For the anatomy of the kidneys, see URINARY
SYSTEM.) The results of morbid processes in the kidney may be grouped
under three heads: the actual lesions produced, the effects of these on
the composition of the urine, and the effects of the kidney-lesion on
the body at large. Affections of the kidney are congenital or acquired.
When acquired they may be the result of a pathological process limited
to the kidney, in which case they are spoken of as primary, or an
accompaniment of disease in other parts of the body, when they may be
spoken of as secondary.
_Congenital Affections._--The principal congenital affections are
anomalies in the number or position of the kidneys or of their ducts;
atrophy; cystic disease and growths. The most common abnormality is
the existence of a _single kidney_; rarely a supernumerary kidney may
be present. The presence of a single kidney may be due to failure of
development, or to atrophy in foetal life; it may also be dependent on
the fusion of originally separate kidneys in such a way as to lead to
the formation of a _horse-shoe kidney_, the two organs being connected
at their lower ends. In some cases of horse-shoe kidney the organs are
united merely by fibrous tissue. Occasionally the two kidneys are
fused end to end, with two ureters. A third variety is that where the
fusion is more complete, producing a disk-like mass with two ureters.
The kidneys may be situated in _abnormal positions_; thus they may be
in front of the sacro-iliac articulation, in the pelvis, or in the
iliac fossa. The importance of such displacements lies in the fact
that the organs may be mistaken for tumours. In some cases _atrophy_
is associated with mal-development, so that only the medullary portion
of the kidney is developed; in others it is associated with arterial
obstruction, and sometimes it may be dependent upon obstruction of the
ureter. In _congenital cystic disease_ the organ is transformed into a
mass of cysts, and the enlargement of the kidneys may be so great as
to produce difficulties in birth. The cystic degeneration is caused by
obstruction of the uriniferous tubules or by anomalies in development,
with persistence of portions of the Wolffian body. In some cases
cystic degeneration is accompanied by anomalies in the ureters and in
the arterial supply. _Growths of the kidney_ are sometimes found in
infants; they are usually malignant, and may consist of a peculiar
form of sarcoma, which has been spoken of as rhabdo-sarcoma, owing to
the presence in the mass of involuntary muscular fibres. The existence
of these tumours is dependent on anomalies of development; the tissue
which forms the primitive kidney belongs to the same layer as that
which gives rise to the muscular system (mesoblast). _Anomalies of the
excretory ducts_: in some cases the ureter is double, in others it is
greatly dilated; in others the pelvis of the kidney may be greatly
dilated, with or without dilatation of the ureter.
_Acquired Affections. Movable Kidney._--One or both of the kidneys in
the adult may be preternaturally mobile. This condition is more common
in women, and is usually the result of a severe shaking or other form
of injury, or of the abdominal walls becoming lax as a sequel to
abdominal distension, to emaciation or pregnancy, or to the effects of
tight-lacing. The more extreme forms of movable kidney are dependent,
generally, on anomalies in the arrangement of the peritoneum, so that
the organ has a partial mesentery; and to this condition, where the
kidney can be moved freely from one part of the abdomen to another,
the term _floating kidney_ is applied. But more usually the organ is
loose under the peritoneum, and not efficiently supported in its fatty
bed. Movable kidney produces a variety of symptoms, such as pain in
the loin and back, faintness, nausea and vomiting--and the function of
the organ may be seriously interfered with, owing to the ureter
becoming kinked. In this way hydronephrosis, or distension of the
kidney with urine, may be produced. The return of blood through the
renal vein may also be hindered, and temporary vascular engorgement of
the kidney, with haematuria, may be produced.
In some cases the movable kidney may be satisfactorily kept in its
place by a pad and belt, but in other cases an operation has to be
undertaken. This consists in exposing the kidney (generally the right)
through an incision below the last rib, and fixing it in its proper
position by several permanent sutures of silk or silkworm gut. The
operation is neither difficult nor dangerous, and its results are
excellent.
_Embolism._--The arrangement of the blood-vessels of the kidney is
peculiarly favourable to the production of wedge-shaped areas of
necrosis, the result of a blocking by clots. Sometimes the clot is
detached from the interior of the heart, the effect being an arrest of
the circulation in the part of the kidney supplied by the blocked
artery. In other cases, the plug is infective owing to the presence of
septic micro-organisms, and this is likely to lead to the formation of
small pyaemic abscesses. It is exceptional for the large branches of
the renal artery to be blocked, so that the symptoms produced in the
ordinary cases are only the temporary appearance of blood or albumen
in the urine. Blocking of the main renal vessels as a result of
disease of the walls of the vessels may lead to disorganization of the
kidneys. Blocking of the veins, leading to extreme congestion of the
kidney, also occurs. It is seen in cases of extreme weakness and
wasting, sometimes in septic conditions, as in puerperal pyaemia,
where a clot, formed first in one of the pelvic veins, may spread up
the vena cava and secondarily block the renal veins. Thrombosis of the
renal vein also occurs in malignant disease of the kidney and in
certain forms of chronic Bright's disease.
_Passive congestion_ of the kidneys occurs in heart-diseases and
lung-diseases, where the return of venous blood is interfered with. It
may also be produced by tumours pressing on the vena cava. The
engorged kidneys become brownish red, enlarged and fibroid, and they
secrete a scanty, high-coloured urine.
_Active congestion_ is produced by the excretion in the urine of such
materials as turpentine and cantharides and the toxins of various
diseases. These irritants produce engorgement and inflammation of the
kidney, much as they would that of any other structures with which
they come in contact. Renal disturbance is often the result of the
excretion of microbic poisons. Extreme congestion of the kidneys may
be produced by exposure to cold, owing to some intimate relationship
existing between the cutaneous and the renal vessels, the constriction
of the one being accompanied by the dilatation of the other. Infective
diseases, such as typhoid fever, pneumonia, scarlet fever, in fact,
most acute specific diseases, produce during their height a temporary
nephritis, not usually followed by permanent alteration in the kidney;
but some acute diseases cause a nephritis which may lay the foundation
of permanent renal disease. This is most common as a result of scarlet
fever.
_Bright's disease_ is the term applied to certain varieties of acute
and chronic inflammation of the kidney. Three forms are usually
recognized--acute, chronic and the granular or cirrhotic kidney. In
the more common form of granular kidney the renal lesion is only part
of a widespread affection involving the whole arterial system, and is
not actually related to Bright's disease. _Chronic Bright's disease_
is sometimes the sequel to acute Bright's disease, but in a great
number of cases the malady is chronic from the beginning. The lesions
of the kidney are probably produced by irritation of the
kidney-structures owing to the excretion of toxic substances either
ingested or formed in the body; it is thought by some that the malady
may arise as a result of exposure to cold. The principal causes of
Bright's disease are alcoholism, gout, pregnancy and the action of
such poisons as lead; it may also occur as a sequel to acute diseases,
such as scarlet fever. Persons following certain occupations are
peculiarly liable to Bright's disease, e.g. engineers who work in hot
shops and pass out into the cold air scantily clothed; and painters,
in whom the malady is dependent on the action of lead on the kidney.
In the case of alcohol and lead the poison is ingested; in the case of
scarlet fever, pneumonia, and perhaps pregnancy, the toxic agent
causing the renal affection is formed in the body. In Bright's disease
all the elements of the kidney, the glomeruli, the tubular epithelium,
and the interstitial tissue, are affected. When the disease follows
scarlet fever, the glomerular structures are mostly affected, the
capsules being thickened by fibrous tissue, and the glomerular tuft
compressed and atrophied. The epithelium of the convoluted tubules
undergoes degeneration; considerable quantities of it are shed, and
form the well-known casts in the urine. The tubules become blocked by
the epithelium, and distended with the pent-up urine; this is one
cause of the increase in size that the kidneys undergo in certain
forms of Bright's disease. The lesions in the tubules and in the
glomeruli are not generally uniform. The interstitial tissue is always
affected, and exudation, proliferation and formation of fibrous tissue
occur. In the granular and contracted kidney the lesion in the
interstitial tissue reaches a high degree of development, little renal
secreting tissue being left. Such tubules as remain are dilated, and
the epithelium lining them is altered, the cells becoming hyaline and
losing their structure. The vessels are narrowed owing to thickening
of the subendothelial layer, and the muscular coat undergoes
hypertrophic and fibroid changes, so that the vessels are abnormally
rigid. When the overgrowth of fibrous tissue is considerable, the
surface of the organ becomes uneven, and it is for this reason that
the term _granular kidney_ has been applied to the condition. In acute
Bright's disease the kidney is increased in size and engorged with
blood, the changes described above being in active progress. In the
chronic form the kidney may be large or small, and is usually white or
mottled. If large, the cortex is thickened, pale and waxy, and the
pyramids are congested; if small, the fibrous change has advanced and
the cortex is diminished. Bright's disease, both acute and chronic, is
essentially a disease of the cortical secreting portion of the kidney.
The true granular kidney, classified by some as a third variety, is
usually part of a general arterial degeneration, the overgrowth of
fibrous tissue in the kidney and the lesions in the arteries being
well marked.
The principal degenerations affecting the kidney are the fatty and the
albuminoid. _Fatty degeneration_ often reaches a high degree in
alcoholics, where fatty degeneration of the heart and liver are also
present. _Albuminoid disease_ is frequently associated with some
varieties of Bright's disease, and is also seen as a result of chronic
bone disease, or of long-continued suppuration involving other parts
of the body, or of syphilis. It is due to irritation of the kidneys by
toxic products.
_Growths of the Kidney._--The principal growths are tubercle, adenoma,
sarcoma and carcinoma. In addition, fatty and fibrous growths, the
nodules of glanders and the gummata of syphilis, may be mentioned.
Tuberculous disease is sometimes primary; more frequently it is
secondary to tubercle in other portions of the genito-urinary
apparatus. The genito-urinary tract may be infected by tubercle in
two ways; _ascending_, in which the primary lesion is in the testicle,
epididymis, or urinary bladder, the lesion travelling up by the ureter
or the lymphatics to the kidney; _descending_, where the tubercle
bacillus reaches the kidney through the blood-vessels. In the latter
case, miliary tubercles, as scattered granules, are seen, especially
in the cortex of the kidney; the lesion is likely to be bilateral. In
primary tuberculosis, and in ascending tuberculosis, the lesion is at
first unilateral. _Malignant disease_ of the kidney takes the form of
sarcoma or carcinoma. Sometimes it is dependent on the malignant
growths starting in what are spoken of as "adrenal rests" in the
cortex of the kidney. Sarcoma is most often seen in the young;
carcinoma in the middle-aged and elderly. Carcinoma may be primary or
secondary, but the kidney is not so prone to malignant disease as
other organs, such as the stomach, bowel or liver.
_Cystic Kidneys._--Cysts may be single--sometimes of large size.
Scattered small cysts are met with in chronic Bright's disease and in
granular contracted kidney, where the dilatation of tubules reaches a
high degree. Certain growths, such as adenomata, are liable to cystic
degeneration, and cysts are also found in malignant disease. Finally,
there is a rare condition of general cystic disease somewhat similar
to the congenital affection. In this form the kidneys, greatly
enlarged, consist of a congeries of cysts separated by the remains of
renal tissue.
_Parasitic Affections._--The more common parasites affecting the
kidney, or some other portion of the urinary tract, and causing
disease, are filaria, bilharzia and the cysticercus form of the
_taenia echinococcus_ (hydatids). The presence of _filaria_ in the
thoracic duct and other lymph-channels may determine the presence of
chyle in the urine, together with the ova and young forms of the
filaria, owing to the distension and rupture of a lymphatic vessel
into some portion of the urinary tract. This is the common cause of
chyluria in hot climates, but chyluria is occasionally seen in the
United Kingdom without filaria. _Bilharzia_, especially in Egypt and
South Africa, causes haematuria. The cysticercus form of the _taenia
echinococcus_ leads to the production of hydatid cysts in the kidney;
this organ, however, is not so often affected as the liver.
_Stone in the Kidney._--Calculi are frequently found in the kidney,
consisting usually of uric acid, sometimes of oxalates, more rarely of
phosphates. Calculous disease of the bladder (q.v.) is generally the
sequel to the formation of a stone in the kidney, which, passing down,
becomes coated by the salts in the urine. Calculi are usually formed
in the pelvis of the kidney, and their formation is dependent either
on the excessive amounts of uric acid, oxalic acid, &c., in the urine,
or on an alteration in the composition of the urine, such as increased
acidity, or on uric acid or oxalate of lime being present in an
abnormal amount. The formation of abnormal crystals is often due to
the presence of some colloid, such as blood, mucus or albumen, in the
secretion, modifying the crystalline form. Once a minute calculus has
been formed, its subsequent growth is highly probable, owing to the
deposition on it of the urinary constituent forming it. Calculi formed
in the pelvis of the kidney may be single and may reach a very large
size, forming, indeed, an actual cast of the interior of the expanded
kidney. At other times they are multiple and of varying size. They may
give rise to no symptoms, or on the other hand may cause distressing
renal colic, especially when they are small and loose and are passed
or are trying to be passed. Serious complications may result from the
presence of a stone in the kidney, such as hydronephrosis, from the
urinary secretion being pent up behind the obstruction, or complete
suppression, which is apparently produced reflexly through the nervous
system. In such cases the surgical removal of the stone is often
followed by the restoration of the renal secretion.
The symptoms of _renal calculus_ may be very slight, or they may be
entirely absent if the stone is moulding itself into the interior of
the kidney; but if the stone is movable, heavy and rough, it may cause
great distress, especially during exercise. There will probably be
blood in the urine; and there will be pain in the loin and thigh and
down into the testicle. The testicle also may be drawn up by its
suspensory muscle, and there may be irritability of the bladder. With
stone in one kidney the pains may be actually referred to the kidney
of the other side. Generally, but not always, there is tenderness in
the loin. If the stone is composed of lime it may throw a shadow on
the Röntgen plate, but other stones may give no shadow.
_Renal colic_ is the acute pain felt when a small stone is travelling
down the ureter to the bladder. The pain is at times so acute that
fomentations, morphia and hot baths fail to ease it, and nothing short
of chloroform gives relief.
For the _operative treatment of renal calculus_ an incision is made a
little below the last rib, and, the muscles having been traversed, the
kidney is reached on the surface which is not covered by peritoneum.
Most likely the stone is then felt, so it is cut down upon and
removed. If it is not discoverable on gently pinching the kidney
between the finger and thumb, the kidney had better be opened in its
convex border and explored by the finger. Often it has happened that
when a man has presented most of the symptoms of renal calculus and
has been operated on with a negative result as regards finding a
stone, all the symptoms have nevertheless disappeared as the direct
result of the blank operation.
_Pyelitis._--Inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney is generally
produced by the extension of gonorrhoeal or other septic inflammation
upwards from the bladder and lower urinary tract, or by the presence
of stone or of tubercle in the pelvis of the kidney. Pyonephrosis, or
distension of the kidney with pus, may result as a sequel to pyelitis
or as a complication of hydronephrosis; in many cases the inflammation
spreads to the capsule of the kidney, and leads to the formation of an
abscess outside the kidney--a _perinephritic abscess_. In some cases a
perinephritic abscess results from a septic plug in a blood-vessel of
the kidney, or it may occur as the result of an injury to the loose
cellular tissue surrounding the kidney, without lesion of the kidney.
_Hydronephrosis_, or distension of the kidney with pent-up urine,
results from obstruction of the ureter, although all obstructions of
the ureter are not followed by it, calculous obstruction, as already
noted, often causing complete suppression of urine. Obstruction of the
ureter, causing hydronephrosis, is likely to be due to the impaction
of a stone, or to pressure on the ureter from a tumour in the
pelvis--as, for instance, a cancer of the uterus--or to some
abnormality of the ureter. Sometimes a kink of the ureter of a movable
kidney causes hydronephrosis. The hydronephrosis produced by
obstruction of the ureter may be intermittent; and when a certain
degree of distension is produced, either as a result of the shifting
of the calculus or of some other cause, the obstruction is temporarily
relieved in a great outflow of urine, and the urinary discharge is
re-established. When the hydronephrosis has long existed the kidney is
converted into a sac, the remains of the renal tissues being spread
out as a thin layer.
_Effects on the Urine._--Diseases of the kidney produce alterations in
the composition of the urine; either the proportion of the normal
constituents being altered, or substances not normally present being
excreted. In most diseases the quantity of urinary water is
diminished, especially in those in which the activity of the
circulation is impaired. There are diseases, however, more especially
the granular kidney and certain forms of chronic Bright's disease, in
which the quantity of urinary water is considerably increased,
notwithstanding the profound anatomical changes that have occurred in
the kidney. There are two forms of suppression of the urine: one is
_obstructive suppression_, seen where the ureter is blocked by stone
or other morbid process; the other is _non-obstructive suppression_,
which is apt to occur in advanced diseases of the kidney. In other
cases complete suppression may occur as the result of injuries to
distant parts of the body, as after severe surgical operations. In
some diseases in which the quantity of urinary water excreted is
normal, or even greater than normal, the efficiency of the renal
activity is really diminished, inasmuch as the urine contains few
solids. In estimating the efficiency of the kidneys, it is necessary
to take into consideration the so-called "solid urine," that is to
say, the quantity of solid matter daily excreted, as shown by the
specific gravity of the urine. The nitrogenous constituents--urea,
uric acid, creatinin, &c.--vary greatly in amount in different
diseases. In most renal diseases the quantities of these substances
are diminished because of the physiological impairment of the kidney.
The chief abnormal constituents of the urine are serum-albumen,
serum-globulin, albumoses (albuminuria), blood (haematuria), blood
pigment (haemoglobinuria), pus (pyuria), chyle (chyluria) and pigments
such as melanuria and urobilinuria.
_Effects on the Body at large._--These may be divided into the
persistent and the intermittent or transitory. The most important
persistent effects produced by disease of the kidney are, first,
nutritional changes leading to general ill health, wasting and
cachexia; and, secondly, certain cardio-vascular phenomena, such as
enlargement (hypertrophy) of the heart, and thickening of the inner,
and degeneration of the middle, coat of the smaller arteries. Amongst
the intermittent or transitory effects are dropsy, secondary
inflammations of certain organs and serous cavities, and uraemia. Some
of these effects are seen in every form of severe kidney disease, and
uraemia may occur in any advanced kidney disease. Renal dropsy is
chiefly seen in certain forms of Bright's disease, and the cardiac and
arterial changes are commonest in cases of granular or contracted
kidney, but may be absent in other diseases which destroy the kidney
tissue, such as hydronephrosis. _Uraemia_ is a toxic condition, and
three varieties of it are recognized--the acute, the chronic and the
latent. Many of these effects are dependent upon the action of poisons
retained in the body owing to the deficient action of the kidneys. It
is also probable that abnormal substances having a toxic action are
produced as a result of a perverted metabolism. Uraemia is of toxic
origin, and it is probable that the dropsy of renal disease is due to
effects produced in the capillaries by the presence of abnormal
substances in the blood. High arterial tension, cardiac hypertrophy
and arterial degeneration may also be of toxic origin, or they may be
produced by an attempt of the body to maintain an active circulation
through the greatly diminished amount of kidney tissue available.
_Rupture of the kidney_ may result from a kick or other direct injury.
Vomiting and collapse are likely to ensue, and most likely blood will
appear in the urine, or a tumour composed of blood and urine may form
in the renal region. An incision made into the swelling from the loin
may enable the surgeon to see the torn kidney. An attempt should be
made to save the kidney by suturing and draining; unless the damage
is obviously past repair, the kidney should not be removed without
giving nature a chance. (J. R. B.; E. O.*)