[1] From "drum" and "kettle," a covered metal vessel for boiling
water or other liquid; the O.E. word is _cetel_, cf. Du. _ketel_,
Ger. _Kessel_, borrowed from Lat. _catillus_, dim. of _catinus_,
bowl.
[2] This rhythmical use of kettledrums was characteristic of the
military instrument of percussion, rather than the musical member of
the orchestra. During the middle ages and until the end of the 18th
century, the two different notes obtainable from the pair of
kettledrums were probably used more as a means of marking and varying
the rhythm than as musical notes entering into the composition of the
harmonies. The kettledrums, in fact, approximated to the side drums
in technique. The contrast between the purely rhythmical use of
kettledrums, given above, and the more modern musical use is well
exemplified by the well-known solo for four kettledrums in
Meyerbeer's _Robert le Diable_, beginning thus--
[Music notes].
[3] See Wilhelm Kleefeld, _Das Orchester der Hamburger Oper_
(1678-1738); _Internationale Musikgesellschaft_, Sammelband i. 2, p.
278 (Leipzig, 1899).
[4] See J. Georges Kastner, _Méthode complète et raisonnée de
timbales_ (Paris), p. 19, where several of the early mechanical
kettledrums are described and illustrated.
[5] See Gustav Schilling's _Encyklopädie der gesammten musikal.
Wissenschaften_ (Stuttgart, 1840), vol. v., art. "Pauke."
[6] See _Manuale pel Timpanista_ (Milan, 1842), where Boracchi
describes and illustrates his invention.
[7] Catullus, lxiii. 8-10; Claud. _De cons. Stilich._ iii. 365;
Lucret. ii. 618; Virg. _Aen._ ix. 619, &c.
[8] John Carter, _Specimens of Ancient Sculpture_, bas-relief from
seats of choir of Worcester cathedral and of collegiate church of St
Katherine near the Tower of London (plates, vol. i. following p. 53
and vol. ii. following p. 22).
[9] _Nat. Hist._ ix. 35, 23.
[10] _De re militari_, ii. 22; iii. 5, &c.
[11] _Crassus_, xxiii. 10. See also Justin xli. 2, and Polydorus,
lib. 1, cap. xv.
[12] See Isidore of Seville, _Etymologiarum_, lib. iii. cap. 21, 141;
Migne, _Patr. curs. completus_, lxxxii. 167.
[13] _Panthéon littéraire_ (Paris, 1837), J. A. Buchon, vol. i. cap.
322, p. 273.
[14] Reproduced by Franz Wickhoff, "Die Wiener Genesis," supplement
to the 15th and 16th volumes of the _Jahrb. d. kunsthistorischen
Sammlungen d. allerhöchsten Kaiserhauses_ (Vienna, 1895); see
frontispiece in colours and plate illustration XXXIV.
[15] _Artliche u. kunstreiche Figuren zu der Reutterey_
(Frankfort-on-Main, 1584).
[16] See Michael Praetorius, _Syntagma Musicum_ and _Monatshefte f.
Musikgeschichte_, Jahrgang x. 51.
[17] See Georges Kastner, _op. cit._, pp. 10 and 11; Johann Ernst
Altenburg, _Versuch einer Anleitung z. heroisch-musikalischen
Trompeter u. Paukerkunst_ (Halle, 1795), p. 128; and H. G. Farmer,
_Memoirs of the Royal Artillery Band_ p. 23, note 1 (London, 1904).
[18] Miller's _Artillery Regimental History_; see also H. G. Farmer,
_op. cit._, p. 22; illustration 1702, p. 26.
[19] _Memoirs of the Royal Artillery._
KEUPER, in geology the third or uppermost subdivision of the Triassic
system. The name is a local miners' term of German origin; it
corresponds to the French _marnes irisées_. The formation is well
exposed in Swabia, Franconia, Alsace and Lorraine and Luxemburg; it
extends from Basel on the east side of the Rhine into Hanover, and
northwards it spreads into Sweden and through England into Scotland and
north-east Ireland; it appears flanking the central plateau of France
and in the Pyrenees and Sardinia. In the German region it is usual to
divide the Keuper into three groups, the _Rhaetic_ or upper Keuper, the
middle, _Hauptkeuper_ or _gypskeuper_, and the lower, _Kohlenkeuper_ or
_Lettenkohle_. In Germany the lower division consists mainly of grey
clays and _schieferletten_ with white, grey and brightly coloured
sandstone and dolomitic limestone. The upper part of this division is
often a grey dolomite known as the Grenz dolomite; the impure coal
beds--_Lettenkohle_--are aggregated towards the base. The middle
division is thicker than either of the others (at Göttingen, 450
metres); it consists of a marly series below, grey, red and green marls
with gypsum and dolomite--this is the _gypskeuper_ in its restricted
sense. The higher part of the series is sandy, hence called the
_Steinmergel_; it is comparatively free from gypsum. To this division
belong the Myophoria beds (_M. Raibliana_) with galena in places; the
Estheria beds (_E. laxitesta_); the Schelfsandstein, used as a
building-stone; the Lehrberg and Berg-gyps beds; Semionotus beds (_S.
Bergeri_) with building-stone of Coburg; and the Burgand
Stubensandstein. The salt, which is associated with gypsum, is exploited
in south Germany at Dreuze, Pettoncourt, Vie in Lorraine and Wimpfen on
the Neckar. A ½-metre coal is found on this horizon in the Erzgebirge,
and another, 2 metres thick, has been mined in Upper Silesia. The upper
Keuper, Rhaetic or _Avicula contorta_ zone in Germany is mainly sandy
with dark grey shales and marls; it is seldom more than 25 metres thick.
The sandstones are used for building purposes at Bayreuth, Culmbach and
Bamberg. In Swabia and the Wesergebirge are several "bone-beds," thicker
than those in the middle Keuper, which contain a rich assemblage of
fossil remains of fish, reptiles and the mammalian teeth of _Microlestes
antiquus_ and _Triglyptus Fraasi_. The name Rhaetic is derived from the
Rhaetic Alps where the beds are well developed; they occur also in
central France, the Pyrenees and England. In S. Tirol and the Judicarian
Mountains the Rhaetic is represented by the Kössener beds. In the Alpine
region the presence of coral beds gives rise to the so-called
"Lithodendron Kalk."
In Great Britain the Keuper contains the following sub-divisions:
_Rhaetic or Penarth beds_, grey, red and green marls, black shales and
so-called "white lias" (10-150 ft.). _Upper Keuper marl_, red and grey
marls and shales with gypsum and rock salt (800-3000 ft.). _Lower
Keuper sandstone_, marls and thin sandstones at the top, red and white
sandstones (including the so-called "waterstones") below, with breccias
and conglomerates at the base (150-250 ft.). The basal or "dolomitic
conglomerate" is a shore or scree breccia derived from local materials;
it is well developed in the Mendip district. The rock-salt beds vary
from 1 in. to 100 ft. in thickness; they are extensively worked (mined
and pumped) in Cheshire, Middlesbrough and Antrim. The Keuper covers a
large area in the midlands and around the flanks of the Pennine range;
it reaches southward to the Devonshire coast, eastward into Yorkshire
and north-westward into north Ireland and south Scotland. As in Germany,
there are one or more "bone beds" in the English Rhaetic with a similar
assemblage of fossils. In the "white lias" the upper hard limestone is
known as the "sun bed" or "Jew stone"; at the base is the Cotham or
landscape marble.
Representatives of the Rhaetic are found in south Sweden, where the
lower portion contains workable coals, in the Himalayas, Japan, Tibet,
Burma, eastern Siberia and in Spitzbergen. The upper portion of the
Karroo beds of South Africa and part of the Otapiri series of New
Zealand are probably of Rhaetic age.
The Keuper is not rich in fossils; the principal plants are
cypress-like conifers (_Walchia_, _Voltzia_) and a few calamites with
such forms as _Equisetum arenaceum_ and _Pterophyllum Jaegeri_,
_Avicula contorta_, _Protocardium rhaeticum_, _Terebratula gregaria_,
_Myophoria costata_, _M. Goldfassi_ and _Lingula tenuessima_,
_Anoplophoria lettica_ may be mentioned among the invertebrates.
Fishes include _Ceratodus_, _Hybodus_ and _Lepidotus_. Labyrinthodonts
represented by the footprints of Cheirotherium and the bones of
_Labyrinthodon_, _Mastodonsaurus_ and _Capitosaurus_. Among the
reptiles are _Hyperodapedon_, _Palaeosaurus_, _Zanclodon_,
_Nothosaurus_ and _Belodon_. _Microlestes_, the earliest known
mammalian genus, has already been mentioned.