[1] Divergence between certain of these figures and those quoted
elsewhere in this work may be accounted for by the slightly different
results arrived at by various authorities.
LAKE CHARLES, a city of Louisiana, U.S.A., capital of Calcasieu Parish,
30 m. from the Gulf of Mexico and about 218 m. (by rail) W. of New
Orleans. Pop. (1889) 838, (1890) 3442, (1900) 6680 (2407 negroes);
(1910) 11,449. It is served by the Louisiana & Texas (Southern Pacific
System), the St Louis, Watkins & Gulf, the Louisiana & Pacific and the
Kansas City Southern railways. The city is charmingly situated on the
shore of Lake Charles, and on the Calcasieu river, which with some
dredging can be made navigable for large vessels for 132 m. from the
Gulf. It is a winter resort. Among the principal buildings are a
Carnegie library, the city hall, the Government building, the court
house, St Patrick's sanatorium, the masonic temple and the Elks' club.
Lake Charles is in the prairie region of southern Louisiana, to the N.
of which, covering a large part of the state, are magnificent forests of
long-leaf pine, and lesser lowland growths of oak, ash, magnolia,
cypress and other valuable timber. The Watkins railway extending to the
N.E. and the Kansas City Southern extending to the N.W. have opened up
the very best of the forest. The country to the S. and W. is largely
given over to rice culture. Lake Charles is the chief centre of lumber
manufacture in the state, and has rice mills, car shops and an important
trade in wool. Ten miles W. are sulphur mines (product in 1907 about
362,000 tons), which with those of Sicily produce a large part of the
total product of the world. Jennings, about 34 m. to the E., is the
centre of oil fields, once very productive but now of diminishing
importance. Welsh, 23 m. E., is the centre of a newer field; and others
lie to the N. Lake Charles was settled about 1852, largely by people
from Iowa and neighbouring states, was incorporated as a town in 1857
under the name of Charleston and again in 1867 under its present name,
and was chartered as a city in 1886. The city suffered severely by fire
in April 1910.
LAKE CITY, a town and the county-seat of Columbia county, Florida,
U.S.A., 59 m. by rail W. by S. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1900) 4013, of
whom 2159 were negroes; (1905) 6509; (1910) 5032. Lake City is served by
the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line and the Georgia Southern
& Florida railways. There are ten small lakes in the neighbourhood, and
the town is a winter and health resort. It is the seat of Columbia
College (Baptist, 1907); the Florida Agricultural College was opened
here in 1883, became the university of Florida in 1903, and in 1905 was
abolished by the Buckman Law. Vegetables and fruits grown for the
northern markets, sea-island cotton and tobacco are important products
of the surrounding country, and Lake City has some trade in cotton,
lumber, phosphates and turpentine. The town was first settled about 1826
as Alligator; it was incorporated in 1854; adopted the present name in
1859; and in 1901, with an enlarged area, was re-incorporated.
LAKE DISTRICT, in England, a district containing all the principal
English lakes, and variously termed the Lake Country, Lakeland and "the
Lakes." It falls within the north-western counties of Cumberland,
Westmorland and Lancashire (Furness district), about one-half being
within the first of these. Although celebrated far outside the confines
of Great Britain as a district of remarkable and strongly individual
physical beauty, its area is only some 700 sq. m., a circle with radius
of 15 m. from the central point covering practically the whole. Within
this circle, besides the largest lake, Windermere, is the highest point
in England, Scafell Pike; yet Windermere is but 10½ m. in length, and
covers an area of 5.69 sq. m., while Scafell Pike is only 3210 ft. in
height. But the lakes show a wonderful variety of character, from open
expanse and steep rock-bound shores to picturesque island-groups and
soft wooded banks; while the mountains have always a remarkable dignity,
less from the profile of their summits than from the bold sweeping lines
of their flanks, unbroken by vegetation, and often culminating in sheer
cliffs or crags. At their feet, the flat green valley floors of the
higher elevations give place in the lower parts to lovely woods. The
streams are swift and clear, and numerous small waterfalls are
characteristic of the district. To the north, west and south, a flat
coastal belt, bordering the Irish Sea, with its inlets Morecambe Bay and
Solway Firth, and broadest in the north, marks off the Lake District,
while to the east the valleys of the Eden and the Lune divide it from
the Pennine mountain system. Geologically, too, it is individual. Its
centre is of volcanic rocks, complex in character, while the
Coal-measures and New Red Sandstone appear round the edges. The district
as a whole is grooved by a main depression, running from north to south
along the valleys of St John, Thirlmere, Grasmere and Windermere,
surmounting a pass (Dunmail Raise) of only 783 ft.; while a secondary
depression, in the same direction, runs along Derwentwater, Borrowdale,
Wasdale and Wastwater, but here Sty Head Pass, between Borrowdale and
Wasdale, rises to 1600 ft. The centre of the 15-m. radius lies on the
lesser heights between Langstrath and Dunmail Raise, which may, however,
be the crown of an ancient dome of rocks, "the dissected skeleton of
which, worn by the warfare of air and rain and ice, now alone remains"
(Dr H. R. Mill, "Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes,"
_Geographical Journal_, vi. 48). The principal features of the district
may be indicated by following this circle round from north, by west,
south and east.
The river Derwent (q.v.), rising in the tarns and "gills" or "ghylls"
(small streams running in deeply-grooved clefts) north of Sty Head
Pass and the Scafell mass flows north through the wooded Borrowdale
and forms Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite. These two lakes are in a
class apart from all the rest, being broader for their length, and
quite shallow (about 18 ft. average and 70 ft. maximum), as distinct
from the long, narrow and deep troughs occupied by the other chief
lakes, which average from 40 to 135 ft. deep. Derwentwater (q.v.),
studded with many islands, is perhaps the most beautiful of all.
Borrowdale is joined on the east by the bare wild dale of Langstrath,
and the Greta joins the Derwent immediately below Derwentwater; the
town of Keswick lying near the junction. Derwentwater and
Bassenthwaite occupy a single depression, a flat alluvial plain
separating them. From Seatoller in Borrowdale a road traverses
Honister Pass (1100 ft.), whence it descends westward, beneath the
majestic Honister Crags, where green slate is quarried, into the
valley containing Buttermere (94 ft. max. depth) and Crummock Water
(144 ft.), drained by the Cocker. Between this and the Derwent valley
the principal height is Grasmoor (2791 ft.); southward a steep narrow
ridge (High Style, 2643) divides it from Ennerdale, containing
Ennerdale Water (148 ft. max. depth), which is fed by the Liza and
drained by the Ehen. A splendid range separates this dale from Wasdale
and its tributary Mosedale, including Great Gable (2949 ft.), Pillar
(2927), with the precipitous Pillar Rock on the Ennerdale flank and
Steeple (2746). Wasdale Head, between Gable and the Scafell range, is
peculiarly grand, with dark grey screes and black crags frowning above
its narrow bottom. On this side of Gable is the fine detached rock,
Napes Needle. Wastwater, 3 m. in length, is the deepest lake of all
(258 ft.), its floor, like those of Windermere and Ullswater, sinking
below sea-level. Its east shore consists of a great range of screes.
East of Wasdale lies the range of Scafell (q.v.), its chief points
being Scafell (3162 ft.), Scafell Pike (3210), Lingmell (2649) and
Great End (2984), while the line is continued over Esk Hause Pass
(2490) along a fine line of heights (Bow Fell, 2960; Crinkle Crags,
2816), to embrace the head of Eskdale. The line then descends to
Wrynose Pass (1270 ft.), from which the Duddon runs south through a
vale of peculiar richness in its lower parts; while the range
continues south to culminate in the Old Man of Coniston (2633) with
the splendid Dow Crags above Goats Water. The pleasant vale of Yewdale
drains south to Coniston Lake (5½ m. long, 184 ft. max. depth), east
of which a lower, well-wooded tract, containing two beautiful lesser
lakes, Tarn Hows and Esthwaite Water, extends to Windermere (q.v.).
This lake collects waters by the Brathay from Langdale, the head of
which, between Bow Fell and Langdale Pikes (2401 ft.), is very fine;
and by the Rothay from Dunmail Raise and the small lakes of Grasmere
and Rydal Water, embowered in woods. East of the Rothay valley and
Thirlmere lies the mountain mass including Helvellyn (3118 ft.),
Fairfield (2863) and other points, with magnificent crags at several
places on the eastern side towards Grisedale and Patterdale. These
dales drain to Ullswater (205 ft. max., second to Windermere in area),
and so north-east to the Eden. To the east and south-east lies the
ridge named High Street (2663 ft.), from the Roman road still
traceable from south to north along its summit, and sloping east again
to the sequestered Hawes Water (103 ft. max.), a curiously shaped lake
nearly divided by the delta of the Measand Beck. There remains the
Thirlmere valley. Thirlmere itself was raised in level, and adapted by
means of a dam at the north end, as a reservoir for the water-supply
of Manchester in 1890-1894. It drains north by St John's Vale into the
Greta, north of which again rises a mountain-group of which the chief
summits are Saddleback or Blencathra (2847 ft.) and the graceful peak
of Skiddaw (3054). The most noteworthy waterfalls are--Scale Force
(Dano-Norwegian _fors_, _foss_), beside Crummock, Lodore near
Derwentwater, Dungeon Gill Force, beside Langdale, Dalegarth Force in
Eskdale, Aira near Ullswater, sung by Wordsworth, Stock Gill Force and
Rydal Falls near Ambleside.
The principal centres in the Lake District are Keswick (Derwentwater),
Ambleside, Bowness, Windermere and Lakeside (Windermere), Coniston and
Boot (Eskdale), all of which, except Ambleside and Bowness (which
nearly joins Windermere) are accessible by rail. The considerable
village of Grasmere lies beautifully at the head of the lake of that
name; and above Esthwaite is the small town of Hawkshead, with an
ancient church, and picturesque houses curiously built on the
hill-slope and sometimes spanning the streets. There are regular
steamer services on Windermere and Ullswater. Coaches and cars
traverse the main roads during the summer, but many of the finest
dales and passes are accessible only on foot or by ponies. All the
mountains offer easy routes to pedestrians, but some of them, as
Scafell, Pillar, Gable (Napes Needle), Pavey Ark above Langdale and
Dow Crags near Coniston, also afford ascents for experienced climbers.
This mountainous district, having the sea to the west, records an
unusually heavy rainfall. Near Seathwaite, below Styhead Pass, the
largest annual rainfall in the British Isles is recorded, the average
(1870-1899) being 133.53 in., while 173.7 was measured in 1903 and
243.98 in. in 1872. At Keswick the annual mean is 60.02, at Grasmere
about 80 ins. The months of maximum rainfall at Seathwaite are
November, December and January and September.
Fish taken in the lakes include perch, pike, char and trout in
Windermere, Ennerdale, Bassenthwaite, Derwentwater, &c., and the
gwyniad or fresh-water herring in Ullswater. The industries of the
Lake District include slate quarrying and some lead and zinc mining,
and weaving, bobbin-making and pencil-making.
Setting aside London and Edinburgh, no locality in the British Isles
is so intimately associated with the history of English literature as
the Lake District. In point of time the poet whose name is first
connected with the region is Gray, who wrote a journal of his tour in
1769. But it was Wordsworth, a native of Cumberland, born on the
outskirts of the Lake District itself, who really made it a Mecca for
lovers of English poetry. Out of his long life of eighty years, sixty
were spent amid its lakes and mountains, first as a schoolboy at
Hawkshead, and afterwards as a resident at Grasmere (1799-1813) and
Rydal Mount (1813-1850). In the churchyard of Grasmere the poet and
his wife lie buried; and very near to them are the remains of Hartley
Coleridge (son of the poet), who himself lived many years at Keswick,
Ambleside and Grasmere. Southey, the friend of Wordsworth, was a
resident of Keswick for forty years (1803-1843), and was buried in
Crosthwaite churchyard. Samuel Taylor Coleridge lived some time at
Keswick, and also with the Wordsworths at Grasmere. From 1807 to 1815
Christopher North (John Wilson) was settled at Windermere. De Quincey
spent the greater part of the years 1809 to 1828 at Grasmere, in the
first cottage which Wordsworth had inhabited. Ambleside, or its
environs, was also the place of residence of Dr Arnold (of Rugby), who
spent there the vacations of the last ten years of his life; and of
Harriet Martineau, who built herself a house there in 1845. At Keswick
Mrs Lynn Linton was born in 1822. Brantwood, a house beside Coniston
Lake, was the home of Ruskin during the last years of his life. In
addition to these residents or natives of the locality, Shelley,
Scott, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Clough, Crabb Robinson, Carlyle, Keats,
Tennyson, Matthew Arnold, Mrs Hemans, Gerald Massey and others of less
reputation made longer or shorter visits, or were bound by ties of
friendship with the poets already mentioned. The Vale of St John, near
Keswick, recalls Scott's _Bridal of Triermain_. But there is a deeper
connexion than this between the Lake District and English letters.
German literature tells of several literary schools, or groups of
writers animated by the same ideas, and working in the spirit of the
same principles and by the same poetic methods. The most notable
instance--indeed it is almost the only instance--of the kind in
English literature is the Lake School of Poets. Of this school the
acknowledged head and founder was Wordsworth, and the tenets it
professed are those laid down by the poet himself in the famous
preface to the edition of _The Lyrical Ballads_ which he published in
1800. Wordsworth's theories of poetry--the objects best suited for
poetic treatment, the characteristics of such treatment and the choice
of diction suitable for the purpose--may be said to have grown out of
the soil and substance of the lakes and mountains, and out of the
homely lives of the people, of Cumberland and Westmoreland.
See CUMBERLAND, LANCASHIRE, WESTMORLAND. The following is a selection
from the literature of the subject: Harriet Martineau, _The English
Lakes_ (Windermere, 1858); Mrs Lynn Linton, _The Lake Country_
(London, 1864); E. Waugh, _Rambles in the Lake Country_ (1861) and _In
the Lake Country_ (1880); W. Knight, _Through the Wordsworth Country_
(London, 1890); H. D. Rawnsley, _Literary Associations of the English
Lakes_ (2 vols., Glasgow, 1894) and _Life and Nature of the English
Lakes_ (Glasgow, 1899); Stopford Brooke, _Dove Cottage, Wordsworth's
Home from 1800 to 1808_; A. G. Bradley, _The Lake District, its
Highways and Byeways_ (London, 1901); Sir John Harwood, _History of
the Thirlmere Water Scheme_ (1895); for mountain-climbing, Col. J.
Brown, _Mountain Ascents in Westmorland and Cumberland_ (London,
1888); Haskett-Smith, _Climbing in the British Isles_, part, i.; Owen
G. Jones, _Rock-climbing in the English Lake District_, 2nd ed. by W.
M. Crook (Keswick, 1900).
LAKE DWELLINGS, the term employed in archaeology for habitations
constructed, not on the dry land, but within the margins of lakes or
creeks at some distance from the shore.
The villages of the Guajiros in the Gulf of Maracaibo are described by
Goering as composed of houses with low sloping roofs perched on lofty
piles and connected with each other by bridges of planks. Each house
consisted of two apartments; the floor was formed of split stems of
trees set close together and covered with mats; they were reached from
the shore by dug-out canoes poled over the shallow waters, and a notched
tree trunk served as a ladder. The custom is also common in the
estuaries of the Orinoco and Amazon. A similar system prevails in New
Guinea. Dumont d'Urville describes four such villages in the Bay of
Dorei, containing from eight to fifteen blocks or clusters of houses,
each block separately built on piles, and consisting of a row of
distinct dwellings. C. D. Cameron describes three villages thus built on
piles in Lake Mohrya, or Moria, in Central Africa, the motive here being
to prevent surprise by bands of slave-catchers. Similar constructions
have been described by travellers, among the Dyaks of Borneo, in
Celebes, in the Caroline Islands, on the Gold Coast of Africa, and in
other places.
Hippocrates, writing in the 5th century B.C., says of the people of the
Phasis that their country is hot and marshy and subject to frequent
inundations, and that they live in houses of timber and reeds
constructed in the midst of the waters, and use boats of a single tree
trunk. Herodotus, writing also in the 5th century B.C., describes the
people of Lake Prasias as living in houses constructed on platforms
supported on piles in the middle of the lake, which are approached from
the land by a single narrow bridge. Abulfeda the geographer, writing in
the 13th century, notices the fact that part of the Apamaean Lake was
inhabited by Christian fishermen who lived on the lake in wooden huts
built on piles, and Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury) mentions that the
Rumelian fishermen on Lake Prasias "still inhabit wooden cottages built
over the water, as in the time of Herodotus."
The records of the wars in Ireland in the 16th century show that the
petty chieftains of that time had their defensive strongholds
constructed in the "freshwater lochs" of the country, and there is
record evidence of a similar system in the western parts of Scotland.
The archaeological researches of the past fifty years have shown that
such artificial constructions in lakes were used as defensive dwellings
by the Celtic people from an early period to medieval times (see
CRANNOG). Similar researches have also established the fact that in
prehistoric times nearly all the lakes of Switzerland, and many in the
adjoining countries--in Savoy and the north of Italy, in Austria and
Hungary and in Mecklenburg and Pomerania--were peopled, so to speak, by
lake-dwelling communities, living in villages constructed on platforms
supported by piles at varying distances from the shores. The principal
groups are those in the Lakes of Bourget, Geneva, Neuchâtel, Bienne,
Zürich and Constance lying to the north of the Alps, and in the Lakes
Maggiore, Varese, Iseo and Garda lying to the south of that mountain
range. Many smaller lakes, however, contain them, and they are also
found in peat moors on the sites of ancient lakes now drained or silted
up, as at Laibach in Carniola. In some of the larger lakes the number of
settlements has been very great. Fifty are enumerated in the Lake of
Neuchâtel, thirty-two in the Lake of Constance, twenty-four in the Lake
of Geneva, and twenty in the Lake of Bienne. The site of the lake
dwelling of Wangen, in the Untersee, Lake of Constance, forms a
parallelogram more than 700 paces in length by about 120 paces in
breadth. The settlement at Morges, one of the largest in the Lake of
Geneva, is 1200 ft. long by 150 ft. in breadth. The settlement of Sutz,
one of the largest in the Lake of Bienne, extends over six acres, and
was connected with the shore by a gangway nearly 100 yds. long and about
40 ft. wide.
The substructure which supported the platforms on which the dwellings
were placed was most frequently of piles driven into the bottom of the
lake. Less frequently it consisted of a stack of brushwood or fascines
built up from the bottom and strengthened by stakes penetrating the mass
so as to keep it from spreading. When piles were used they were the
rough stems of trees of a length proportioned to the depth of the water,
sharpened sometimes by fire and at other times chopped to a point by
hatchets. On their level tops the beams supporting the platforms were
laid and fastened by wooden pins, or inserted in mortices cut in the
heads of the piles. In some cases the whole construction was further
steadied and strengthened by cross beams, notched into the piles below
the supports of the platform. The platform itself was usually composed
of rough layers of unbarked stems, but occasionally it was formed of
boards split from larger stems. When the mud was too soft to afford
foothold for the piles they were mortised into a framework of tree
trunks placed horizontally on the bottom of the lake. On the other hand,
when the bottom was rocky so that the piles could not be driven, they
were steadied at their bases by being enveloped in a mound of loose
stones, in the manner in which the foundations of piers and breakwaters
are now constructed. In cases where piles have not been used, as at
Niederwil and Wauwyl, the substructure is a mass of fascines or faggots
laid parallel and crosswise upon one another with intervening layers of
brushwood or of clay and gravel, a few piles here and there being fixed
throughout the mass to serve as guides or stays. At Niederwil the
platform was formed of split boards, many of which were 2 ft. broad and
2 or 3 in. in thickness.
On these substructures were the huts composing the settlement; for the
peculiarity of these lake dwellings is that they were pile villages, or
clusters of huts occupying a common platform. The huts themselves were
quadrilateral in form. The size of each dwelling is in some cases marked
by boards resting edgeways on the platform, like the skirting boards
over the flooring of the rooms in a modern house. The walls, which were
supported by posts, or by piles of greater length, were formed of
wattle-work, coated with clay. The floors were of clay, and in each
floor there was a hearth constructed of flat slabs of stone. The roofs
were thatched with bark, straw, reeds or rushes. As the superstructures
are mostly gone, there is no evidence as to the position and form of the
doorways, or the size, number and position of the windows, if there were
any. In one case, at Schussenried, the house, which was of an oblong
quadrangular form, about 33 by 23 ft., was divided into two rooms by a
partition. The outer room, which was the smaller of the two, was entered
by a doorway 3 ft. in width facing the south. The access to the inner
room was by a similar door through the partition. The walls were formed
of split tree-trunks set upright and plastered with clay; and the
flooring of similar timbers bedded in clay. In other cases the remains
of the gangways or bridges connecting the settlements with the shore
have been discovered, but often the village appears to have been
accessible only by canoes. Several of these single-tree canoes have been
found, one of which is 43 ft. in length and 4 ft. 4 in. in its greatest
width. It is impossible to estimate with any degree of certainty the
number of separate dwellings of which any of these villages may have
consisted, but at Niederwil they stood almost contiguously on the
platform, the space between them not exceeding 3 ft. in width. The size
of the huts also varied considerably. At Niederwil they were 20 ft. long
and 12 ft. wide, while at Robenhausen they were about 27 ft. long by
about 22 ft. wide.
The character of the relics shows that in some cases the settlements
have been the dwellings of a people using no materials but stone, bone
and wood for their implements, ornaments and weapons; in others, of a
people using bronze as well as stone and bone; and in others again the
occasional use of iron is disclosed. But, though the character of the
relics is thus changed, there is no corresponding change in the
construction and arrangements of the dwellings. The settlement in the
Lake of Moosseedorf, near Bern, affords the most perfect example of a
lake dwelling of the Stone age. It was a parallelogram 70 ft. long by 50
ft. wide, supported on piles, and having a gangway built on faggots
connecting it with the land. The superstructure had been destroyed by
fire. The implements found in the relic bed under it were axe-heads of
stone, with their haftings of stag's horn and wood; a flint saw, set in
a handle of fir wood and fastened with asphalt; flint flakes and
arrow-heads; harpoons of stag's horn with barbs; awls, needles, chisels,
fish-hooks and other implements of bone; a comb of yew wood 5 in. long;
and a skate made out of the leg bone of a horse. The pottery consisted
chiefly of roughly-made vessels, some of which were of large size,
others had holes under the rims for suspension, and many were covered
with soot, the result of their use as culinary vessels. Burnt wheat,
barley and linseed, with many varieties of seeds and fruits, were
plentifully mingled with the bones of the stag, the ox, the swine, the
sheep and the goat, representing the ordinary food of the inhabitants,
while remains of the beaver, the fox, the hare, the dog, the bear, the
horse, the elk and the bison were also found.
The settlement of Robenhausen, in the moor which was formerly the bed of
the ancient Lake of Pfäffikon, seems to have continued in occupation
after the introduction of bronze. The site covers nearly 3 acres, and is
estimated to have contained 100,000 piles. In some parts three distinct
successions of inhabited platforms have been traced. The first had been
destroyed by fire. It is represented at the bottom of the lake by a
layer of charcoal mixed with implements of stone and bone and other
relics highly carbonized. The second is represented above the bottom by
a series of piles with burnt heads, and in the bottom by a layer of
charcoal mixed with corn, apples, cloth, bones, pottery and implements
of stone and bone, separated from the first layer of charcoal by 3 ft.
of peaty sediment intermixed with relics of the occupation of the
platform. The piles of the third settlement do not reach down to the
shell marl, but are fixed in the layers representing the first and
second settlements. They are formed of split oak trunks, while those of
the two first settlements are round stems chiefly of soft wood. The huts
of this last settlement appear to have had cattle stalls between them,
the droppings and litter forming heaps at the lake bottom. The bones of
the animals consumed as food at this station were found in such numbers
that 5 tons were collected in the construction of a watercourse which
crossed the site. Among the wooden objects recovered from the relic beds
were tubs, plates, ladles and spoons, a flail for threshing corn, a last
for stretching shoes of hide, celt handles, clubs, long-bows of yew,
floats and implements of fishing and a dug-out canoe 12 ft. long. No
spindle-whorls were found, but there were many varieties of cloth,
platted and woven, bundles of yarn and balls of string. Among the tools
of bone and stag's horn were awls, needles, harpoons, scraping tools and
haftings for stone axe-heads. The implements of stone were chiefly
axe-heads and arrow-heads. Of clay and earthenware there were many
varieties of domestic dishes, cups and pipkins, and crucibles or melting
pots made of clay and horse dung and still retaining the drossy coating
of the melted bronze.
The settlement of Auvernier in the Lake of Neuchâtel is one of the
richest and most considerable stations of the Bronze age. It has yielded
four bronze swords, ten socketed spear-heads, forty celts or axe-heads
and sickles, fifty knives, twenty socketed chisels, four hammers and an
anvil, sixty rings for the arms and legs, several highly ornate torques
or twisted neck rings, and upwards of two hundred hair pins of various
sizes up to 16 in. in length, some having spherical heads in which
plates of gold were set. Moulds for sickles, lance-heads and bracelets
were found cut in stone or made in baked clay. From four to five hundred
vessels of pottery finely made and elegantly shaped are indicated by the
fragments recovered from the relic bed. The Lac de Bourget, in Savoy,
has eight settlements, all of the Bronze age. These have yielded upwards
of 4000 implements, weapons and ornaments of bronze, among which were a
large proportion of moulds and founders' materials. A few stone
implements suggest the transition from stone to bronze; and the
occasional occurrence of iron weapons and pottery of Gallo-Roman origin
indicates the survival of some of the settlements to Roman times.
The relative antiquity of the earlier settlements of the Stone and
Bronze ages is not capable of being deduced from existing evidence. "We
may venture to place them," says Dr F. Keller, "in an age when iron and
bronze had been long known, but had not come into our districts in such
plenty as to be used for the common purposes of household life, at a
time when amber had already taken its place as an ornament and had
become an object of traffic." It is now considered that the people who
erected the lake dwellings of Central Europe were also the people who
were spread over the mainland. The forms and the ornamentation of the
implements and weapons of stone and bronze found in the lake dwellings
are the same as those of the implements and weapons in these materials
found in the soil of the adjacent regions, and both groups must
therefore be ascribed to the industry of one and the same people.
Whether dwelling on the land or dwelling in the lake, they have
exhibited so many indications of capacity, intelligence, industry and
social organization that they cannot be considered as presenting, even
in their Stone age, a very low condition of culture or civilization.
Their axes were made of tough stones, sawn from the block and ground to
the fitting shape. They were fixed by the butt in a socket of stag's
horn, mortised into a handle of wood. Their knives and saws of flint
were mounted in wooden handles and fixed with asphalt. They made and
used an endless variety of bone tools. Their pottery, though roughly
finished, is well made, the vessels often of large size and capable of
standing the fire as cooking utensils. For domestic dishes they also
made wooden tubs, plates, spoons, ladles and the like. The industries of
spinning and weaving were largely practised. They made nets and fishing
lines, and used canoes. They practised agriculture, cultivating several
varieties of wheat and barley, besides millet and flax. They kept
horses, cattle, sheep, goats and swine. Their clothing was partly of
linen and partly of woollen fabrics and the skins of their beasts. Their
food was nutritious and varied, their dwellings neither unhealthy nor
incommodious. They lived in the security and comfort obtained by social
organization, and were apparently intelligent, industrious and
progressive communities.
There is no indication of an abrupt change from the use of stone to the
use of metal such as might have occurred had the knowledge of copper and
bronze, and the methods of working them, been introduced through the
conquest of the original inhabitants by an alien race of superior
culture and civilization. The improved cultural conditions become
apparent in the multiplication of the varieties of tools, weapons and
ornaments made possible by the more adaptable qualities of the new
material; and that the development of the Bronze age culture in the lake
dwellings followed the same course as in the surrounding regions where
the people dwelt on the dry land is evident from the correspondence of
the types of implements, weapons, ornaments and utensils common to both
these conditions of life.
Other classes of prehistoric pile-structures akin to the lake dwellings
are the Terremare of Italy and the Terpen of Holland. Both of these are
settlements of wooden huts erected on piles, not over the water, but on
flat land subject to inundations. The terremare (so named from the marly
soil of which they are composed) appear as mounds, sometimes of very
considerable extent, which when dug into disclose the remains and relic
beds of the ancient settlements. They are most abundant in the plains of
northern Italy traversed by the Po and its tributaries, though similar
constructions have been found in Hungary in the valley of the Theiss.
These pile-villages were often surrounded by an earthen rampart within
which the huts were erected in more or less regular order. Many of them
present evidence of having been more than once destroyed by fire and
reconstructed, while others show one or more reconstructions at higher
levels on the same site. The contents of the relic beds indicate that
they belong for the most part to the age of bronze, although in some
cases they may be referred to the latter part of the Stone age. Their
inhabitants practised agriculture and kept the common domestic animals,
while their tools, weapons and ornaments were mainly of similar
character to those of the contemporary lake dwellers of the adjoining
regions. Some of the Italian terremare show quadrangular constructions
made like the modern log houses, of undressed tree trunks superposed
longitudinally and overlapping at the ends, as at Castione in the
province of Parma. A similar mode of construction is found in the
pile-village on the banks of the Save, near Donja Dolina in Bosnia,
described in 1904 by Dr Truhelka. Here the larger houses had platforms
in front of them forming terraces at different levels descending towards
the river. There was a cemetery adjacent to the village in which both
unburnt and cremated interments occurred, the former predominating. From
the general character of the relics this settlement appeared to belong
to the early Iron age. The Terpen of Holland appear as mounds somewhat
similar to those of the terremare, and were also pile structures, on low
or marshy lands subject to inundations from the sea. Unlike the
terremare and the lake dwellings they do not seem to belong to the
prehistoric ages, but yield indications of occupation in post-Roman and
medieval times.
AUTHORITIES.--The materials for the investigation of this singular
phase of prehistoric life were first collected and systematized by Dr
Ferdinand Keller (1800-1881), of Zürich, and printed in _Mittheilungen
der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zürich_, vols, ix.-xxii., 4to
(1855-1886). The substance of these reports has been issued as a
separate work in England, _The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland and other
parts of Europe_, by Dr Ferdinand Keller, translated and arranged by
John Edward Lee, 2nd ed. (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1878). Other works on
the same subject are Frédéric Troyon, _Habitations lacustres des temps
anciens et modernes_ (Lausanne, 1860); E. Desor, _Les Palafittes ou
constructions lacustres du lac de Neuchâtel_ (Paris, 1865); E. Desor
and L. Favre, _Le Bel Âge du bronze lacustre en Suisse_ (Paris, 1874);
A. Perrin, _Étude préhistorique sur la Savoie spécialement à l'époque
lacustre_ (_Les Palafittes du lac de Bourget_, Paris, 1870); Ernest
Chantre, _Les Palafittes ou constructions lacustres du lac de Paladru_
(Chambery, 1871); Bartolomeo Gastaldi, _Lake Habitations and
prehistoric Remains in the Turbaries and Marl-beds of Northern and
Central Italy_, translated by C. H. Chambers (London, 1865); Sir John
Lubbock (Lord Avebury), _Prehistoric Times_ (4th ed., London, 1878);
Robert Munro, _The Lake-Dwellings of Europe_ (London, 1890), with a
bibliography of the subject. (J. An.)
LAKE GENEVA, a city of Walworth county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., 65 m. N.W. of
Chicago. Pop. (1900) 2585, of whom 468 were foreign-born; (1905) 3449;
(1910) 3079. It is served by the Chicago & Northwestern railway. The
city is picturesquely situated on the shores of Lake Geneva (9 m. long
and 1½ to 3 m. wide), a beautiful body of remarkably clear water, fed by
springs, and encircled by rolling hills covered with thick groves of
hardwood trees. The region is famous as a summer resort, particularly
for Chicago people. The city is the seat of Oakwood Sanitarium, and at
Williams Bay, 6 m. distant, is the Yerkes Observatory of the University
of Chicago. Dairying is the most important industrial interest. The
first settlement on Lake Geneva was made about 1833. The city was
chartered in 1893.
LAKE OF THE WOODS, a lake in the south-west of the province of Ontario,
Canada, bordering west on the province of Manitoba, and south on the
state of Minnesota. It is of extremely irregular shape, and contains
many islands. Its length is 70 m., breadth 10 to 50 m., area 1500 sq. m.
It lies in the centre of the Laurentian region between Lakes Winnipeg
and Superior, and an area of 36,000 sq. m. drains to it. It collects the
waters of many rivers, the chief being Rainy river from the east,
draining Rainy Lake. By the Winnipeg river on the north-east it
discharges into Lake Winnipeg. At its source Winnipeg river is 1057 ft.
above the sea, and drops 347 ft. in its course of 165 m. The scenery
both on and around the lake is exceedingly beautiful, and the islands
are largely occupied by the summer residences of city merchants. Kenora,
a flourishing town at the source of the Winnipeg river, is the centre of
the numerous lumbering and mining enterprises of the vicinity.
LAKE PLACID, a village in Essex county, New York, U.S.A., on the W.
shore of Mirror Lake, near the S. end of Lake Placid, about 42 m. N.W.
of Ticonderoga. Pop. (1905) 1514; (1910) 1682. The village is served by
the Delaware & Hudson railway. The region is one of the most attractive
in the Adirondacks, and is a much frequented summer resort. There are
four good golf courses here, and the village has a well-built club
house, called the "Neighborhood House." The village lies on the narrow
strip of land (about 1/3 m.) between Mirror Lake (about 1 m. long, N.
and S., and 1/3 m. wide), and Lake Placid, about 5 m. long (N.N.E. by
S.S.W.), and about 1½ m. (maximum) broad; its altitude is 1864 ft. The
lake is roughly divided, from N. to S. by three islands--Moose, the
largest, and Hawk, both privately owned, and Buck--and is a beautiful
sheet of water in a picturesque setting of forests and heavily wooded
hills and mountains. Among the principal peaks in the vicinity are
Whiteface Mountain (4871 ft.), about 3 m. N.W. of the N. end of the
lake; McKenzie Mountain (3872 ft.), about 1 m. to the W., and Pulpit
Mountain (2658 ft.), on the E. shore. The summit of Whiteface Mountain
commands a fine view, with Gothic (4738 ft.), Saddleback (4530 ft.),
Basin (4825 ft.), Marcy (5344 ft.), and McIntyre (5210 ft.) mountains
about 10 m. to the S. and Lake Champlain to the E., and to the N.E. may
be seen, on clear days, the spires of Montreal. In the valleys E. and S.
are the headwaters of the famous Ausable river. About 2 m. E. of the
village, at North Elba, is the grave of the abolitionist, John Brown,
with its huge boulder monument, and near it is another monument which
bears the names of the 20 persons who bought the John Brown farm and
gave it to the state. The railway to the village was completed in 1893.
The village was incorporated in 1900.
LAKEWOOD, a village of Ocean county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the township
of Lakewood, 59 m. S. by W. of New York city, and 8 m. from the coast,
on the Central Railroad of New Jersey. Pop. (1900) of the township,
including the village, 3094; (1905) 4265; (1910) 5149. Lakewood is a
fashionable health and winter resort, and is situated in the midst of a
pine forest, with two small lakes, and many charming walks and drives.
In the village there are a number of fine residences, large hotels, a
library and a hospital. The winter temperature is 10-12° F. warmer than
in New York. The township of Lakewood was incorporated in 1892.
LAKH (from the Sans. _laksha_, one hundred thousand), a term used in
British India, in a colloquial sense to signify a lakh of rupees
(written 1,00,000), which at the face value of the rupee would be worth
£10,000, but now is worth only £6666. The term is also largely used in
trade returns. A hundred lakhs make a crore.
LAKHIMPUR, a district of British India in the extreme east of the
province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. Area, 4529 sq. m. It lies along
both banks of the Brahmaputra for about 400 m.; it is bounded N. by the
Daphla, Miri, Abor and Mishmi hills, E. by the Mishmi and Kachin hills,
S. by the watershed of the Patkai range and the Lohit branch of the
Brahmaputra, and W. by the districts of Darrang and Sibsagar. The
Brahmaputra is navigable for steamers in all seasons as far as
Dibrugarh, in the rainy season as far as Sadiya; its navigable
tributaries within the district are the Subansiri, Dibru and Dihing. The
deputy-commissioner in charge exercises political control over numerous
tribes beyond the inner surveyed border. The most important of these
tribes are the Miris, Abors, Mishmis, Khamtis, Kachins and Nagas. In
1901 the population was 371,396, an increase of 46% in the decade. The
district has enjoyed remarkable and continuous prosperity. At each
successive census the percentage of increase has been over 40, the
present population being more than three times as great as that of 1872.
This increase is chiefly due to the numerous tea gardens and to the coal
mines and other enterprises of the Assam Railways and Trading Company.
Lakhimpur was the first district into which tea cultivation was
introduced by the government, and the Assam Company began operations
here in 1840. The railway, known as the Dibru-Sadiya line, runs from
Dibrugarh to Makum, with two branches to Talap and Margherita, and has
been connected across the hills with the Assam-Bengal railway. The coal
is of excellent quality, and is exported by river as far as Calcutta.
The chief oil-wells are at Digboi. The oil is refined at Margherita,
producing a good quality of kerosene oil and first-class paraffin, with
wax and other by-products. The company also manufactures bricks and
pipes of various kinds. Another industry is cutting timber, for the
manufacture of tea-chests, &c.
Lakhimpur figures largely in the annals of Assam as the region where
successive invaders from the east first reached the Brahmaputra. The
Bara Bhuiyas, originally from the western provinces of India, were
driven out by the Chutias (a Shan race), and these in their turn gave
place to their more powerful brethren, the Ahoms, in the 13th century.
The Burmese, who had ruined the native kingdoms, at the end of the
18th century, were in 1825 expelled by the British, who placed the
southern part of the country, together with Sibsagar under the rule of
Raja Purandhar Singh; but it was not till 1838 that the whole was
taken under direct British administration. The headquarters are at
Dibrugarh.
See _Lakhimpur District Gazetteer_ (Calcutta, 1905).
LAKSHMI (Sans. for "mark," "sign," generally used in composition with
_punya_, "prosperous"; hence "good sign," "good fortune"), in Hindu
mythology, the wife of Vishnu worshipped as the goddess of love, beauty
and prosperity. She has many other names, the chief being _Loka mata_
("mother of the world"), _Padma_ ("the lotus"), _Padma laya_ ("she who
dwells on a lotus") and _Jaladhija_ ("the ocean-born"). She is
represented as of a bright golden colour and seated on a lotus. She is
said to have been born from the sea of milk when it was churned from
ambrosia. Many quaint myths surround her birth. In the Rig Veda her name
does not occur as a goddess.
LALAING, JACQUES DE (c. 1420-1453), Flemish knight, was originally in
the service of the duke of Cleves and afterwards in that of the duke of
Burgundy, Philip III., the Good, gaining great renown by his prowess in
the tiltyard. The duke of Burgundy entrusted him with embassies to the
pope and the king of France (1451), and subsequently sent him to put
down the revolt of the inhabitants of Ghent, in which expedition he was
killed. His biography, _Le Livre des faits de messire Jacques de
Lalaing_, which has been published several times, is mainly the work of
the Burgundian herald and chronicler Jean le Fèvre, better known as
_Toison d'or_; the Flemish historiographer Georges Chastellain and the
herald Charolais also took part in its compilation.
LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LEFRANÇAIS DE (1732-1807), French astronomer, was
born at Bourg (department of Ain), on the 11th of July 1732. His parents
sent him to Paris to study law; but the accident of lodging in the Hôtel
Cluny, where J. N. Delisle had his observatory, drew him to astronomy,
and he became the zealous and favoured pupil of both Delisle and Pierre
Lemonnier. He, however, completed his legal studies, and was about to
return to Bourg to practise there as an advocate, when Lemonnier
obtained permission to send him to Berlin, to make observations on the
lunar parallax in concert with those of N. L. Lacaille at the Cape of
Good Hope. The successful execution of his task procured for him, before
he was twenty-one, admission to the Academy of Berlin, and the post of
adjunct astronomer to that of Paris. He now devoted himself to the
improvement of the planetary theory, publishing in 1759 a corrected
edition of Halley's tables, with a history of the celebrated comet whose
return in that year he had aided Clairault to calculate. In 1762 J. N.
Delisle resigned in his favour the chair of astronomy in the Collège de
France, the duties of which were discharged by Lalande for forty-six
years. His house became an astronomical seminary, and amongst his pupils
were J. B. J. Delambre, G. Piazzi, P. Mechain, and his own nephew Michel
Lalande. By his publications in connexion with the transit of 1769 he
won great and, in a measure, deserved fame. But his love of notoriety
and impetuous temper compromised the respect due to his scientific zeal,
though these faults were partially balanced by his generosity and
benevolence. He died on the 4th of April 1807.
Although his investigations were conducted with diligence rather than
genius, the career of Lalande must be regarded as of eminent service
to astronomy. As a lecturer and writer he gave to the science
unexampled popularity; his planetary tables, into which he introduced
corrections for mutual perturbations, were the best available up to
the end of the 18th century; and the Lalande prize, instituted by him
in 1802 for the chief astronomical performance of each year, still
testifies to his enthusiasm for his favourite pursuit. Amongst his
voluminous works are _Traité d'astronomie_ (2 vols., 1764; enlarged
edition, 4 vols., 1771-1781; 3rd ed., 3 vols., 1792); _Histoire
céleste française_ (1801), giving the places of 50,000 stars;
_Bibliographie astronomique_ (1803), with a history of astronomy from
1781 to 1802; _Astronomie des dames_ (1785); _Abrégé de navigation_
(1793); _Voyage d'un françois en Italie_ (1769), a valuable record of
his travels in 1765-1766. He communicated above one hundred and fifty
papers to the Paris Academy of Sciences, edited the _Connoissance des
temps_ (1759-1774), and again (1794-1807), and wrote the concluding 2
vols. of the 2nd edition of Montucla's _Histoire des mathématiques_
(1802).
See _Mémoires de l'Institut_, t. viii. (1807) (J. B. J. Delambre);
Delambre, _Hist. de l'astr. au XVIII^e siècle_, p. 547; _Magazin
encyclopédique_, ii. 288 (1810) (Mme de Salm); J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de
l'astr. moderne_, t. iii. (ed. 1785); J. Mädler, _Geschichte der
Himmelskunde_, ii. 141; R. Wolf, _Gesch. der Astronomie_; J. J.
Lalande, _Bibl. astr._ p. 428; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit.
Handwörterbuch_; M. Marie, _Hist. des sciences_, ix. 35.
LALÍN, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Pontevedra.
Pop. (1900) 16,238. Lalín is the centre of the trade in agricultural
products of the fertile highlands between the Deza and Arnego rivers.
The local industries are tanning and the manufacture of paper. Near
Lalín are the ruins of the Gothic abbey of Carboeiro.
LA LINEA, or LA LINEA DE LA CONCEPCION, a town of Spain, in the province
of Cadiz, between Gibraltar and San Roque. Pop. (1900) 31,802. La Linea,
which derives its name from the _line_ or boundary dividing Spanish
territory from the district of Gibraltar, is a town of comparatively
modern date and was formerly looked upon as a suburb of San Roque. It is
now a distinct frontier post and headquarters of the Spanish commandant
of the lines of Gibraltar. The fortifications erected here in the 16th
century were dismantled by the British in 1810, to prevent the landing
of French invaders, and all the existing buildings are modern. They
include barracks, casinos, a theatre and a bull-ring, much frequented by
the inhabitants and garrison of Gibraltar. La Linea has some trade in
cereals, fruit and vegetables; it is the residence of large numbers of
labourers employed in Gibraltar.
LALITPUR, a town of British India, in Jhansi district, United Provinces.
Pop. (1901) 11,560. It has a station on the Great Indian Peninsula
railway, and a large trade in oil-seeds, hides and _ghi_. It contains
several beautiful Hindu and Jain temples. It was formerly the
headquarters of a district of the same name, which was incorporated with
that of Jhansi in 1891. The Bundela chiefs of Lalitpur were among those
who most eagerly joined the Mutiny, and it was only after a severe
struggle that the district was pacified.
LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR, COMTE DE, Baron de Tollendal (1702-1766), French
general, was born at Romans, Dauphiné, in January 1702, being the son of
Sir Gerard O'Lally, an Irish Jacobite who married a French lady of noble
family, from whom the son inherited his titles. Entering the French army
in 1721 he served in the war of 1734 against Austria; he was present at
Dettingen (1743), and commanded the regiment de Lally in the famous
Irish brigade at Fontenoy (May 1745). He was made a brigadier on the
field by Louis XV. He had previously been mixed up in several Jacobite
plots, and in 1745 accompanied Charles Edward to Scotland, serving as
aide-de-camp at the battle of Falkirk (January 1746). Escaping to
France, he served with Marshal Saxe in the Low Countries, and at the
capture of Maestricht (1748) was made a _maréchal de camp_. When war
broke out with England in 1756 Lally was given the command of a French
expedition to India. He reached Pondicherry in April 1758, and at the
outset met with some trifling military success. He was a man of courage
and a capable general; but his pride and ferocity made him disliked by
his officers and hated by his soldiers, while he regarded the natives as
slaves, despised their assistance, and trampled on their traditions of
caste. In consequence everything went wrong with him. He was
unsuccessful in an attack on Tanjore, and had to retire from the siege
of Madras (1758) owing to the timely arrival of the British fleet. He
was defeated by Sir Eyre Coote at Wandiwash (1760), and besieged in
Pondicherry and forced to capitulate (1761). He was sent as a prisoner
of war to England. While in London, he heard that he was accused in
France of treachery, and insisted, against advice, on returning on
parole to stand his trial. He was kept prisoner for nearly two years
before the trial began; then, after many painful delays, he was
sentenced to death (May 6, 1766), and three days later beheaded. Louis
XV. tried to throw the responsibility for what was undoubtedly a
judicial murder on his ministers and the public, but his policy needed a
scapegoat, and he was probably well content not to exercise his
authority to save an almost friendless foreigner.
See G. B. Malleson, _The Career of Count Lally_ (1865); "Z's" (the
marquis de Lally-Tollendal) article in the _Biographie Michaud_; and
Voltaire's _Oeuvres complètes_. The legal documents are preserved in
the Bibliothèque Nationale.
LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GÉRARD, MARQUIS DE (1751-1830), was born at
Paris on the 5th of March 1751. He was the legitimized son of the comte
de Lally and only discovered the secret of his birth on the day of his
father's execution, when he resolved to devote himself to clearing his
father's memory. He was supported by Voltaire, and in 1778 succeeded in
persuading Louis XVI. to annul the decree which had sentenced the comte
de Lally; but the parlement of Rouen, to which the case was referred
back, in 1784 again decided in favour of Lally's guilt. The case was
retried by other courts, but Lally's innocence was never fully admitted
by the French judges. In 1779 Lally-Tollendal bought the office of
_Grand bailli_ of Étampes, and in 1789 was a deputy to the
states-general for the _noblesse_ of Paris. He played some part in the
early stages of the Revolution, but was too conservative to be in
sympathy with all even of its earlier developments. He threw himself
into opposition to the "tyranny" of Mirabeau, and condemned the epidemic
of renunciation which in the session of the 4th of August 1789 destroyed
the traditional institutions of France. Later in the year he emigrated
to England. During the trial of Louis XVI. by the National Convention
(1793) he offered to defend the king, but was not allowed to return to
France. He did not return till the time of the Consulate. Louis XVIII.
created him a peer of France, and in 1816 he became a member of the
French Academy. From that time until his death, on the 11th of March
1830, he devoted himself to philanthropic work, especially identifying
himself with prison reform.
See his _Plaidoyer pour Louis XVI._ (London, 1793); Lally-Tollendal
was also in part responsible for the _Mémoires_, attributed to Joseph
Weber, concerning Marie Antoinette (1804); he further edited the
article on his father in the _Biographie Michaud_; see also Arnault,
_Discours prononcé aux funérailles de M. le marquis de Lally-Tollendal
le 13 mars 1830_ (Paris); Gauthier de Brecy, _Nécrologie de M. le
marquis de Lally-Tollendal_ (Paris, undated); Voltaire, _Oeuvres
complètes_ (Paris, 1889), in which see the analytical table of
contents, vol. ii.
LALO, EDOUARD (1823-1892), French composer, was born at Lille, on the
27th of January 1823. He began his musical studies at the conservatoire
at Lille, and in Paris attended the violin classes of Habeneck. For
several years Lalo led a modest and retired existence, playing the viola
in the quartet party organized by Armingaud and Jacquard, and in
composing chamber music. His early works include two trios, a quartet,
and several pieces for violin and pianoforte. In 1867 he took part in an
operatic competition, an opera from his pen, entitled _Fiesque_,
obtaining the third place out of forty-three. This work was accepted for
production at the Paris Opéra, but delays occurred, and nothing was
done. _Fiesque_ was next offered to the Théâtre de la Monnaie, Brussels,
and was about to be produced there when the manager became bankrupt.
Thus, when nearly fifty years of age, Lalo found himself in
difficulties. _Fiesque_ was never performed, but the composer published
the pianoforte score, and eventually employed some of the music in other
works. After the Franco-German war French composers found their
opportunity in the concert-room. Lalo was one of these, and during the
succeeding ten years several interesting works from his pen were
produced, among them a sonata for violoncello, a "divertissement" for
orchestra, a violin concerto and the _Symphonie Espagnole_ for violin
and orchestra, one of his best-known compositions. In the meanwhile he
had written a second opera, _Le Roi d'Ys_, which he hoped would be
produced at the Opéra. The administration offered him the "scenario" of
a ballet instead. Lalo was obliged to be content with this, and set to
work with so much energy that he fell ill, the last scenes of the ballet
being orchestrated by Gounod. _Namouna_, the ballet in question, was
produced at the Opéra in 1882. Six years later, on the 7th of May 1888,
_Le Roi d'Ys_ was brought out at the Opéra Comique, and Lalo was at last
enabled to taste the sweets of success. Unfortunately, fame came to him
too late in life. A pianoforte concerto and the music to _Néron_, a
pantomimic piece played at the Hippodrome in 1891, were his last two
works. He had begun a new opera, but had only written the first act
when, on the 23rd of April 1892, he died. This opera, _La Jacquerie_,
was finished by Arthur Coquard, and was produced in 1895 at Monte Carlo,
Aix-les-Bains and finally in Paris. Lalo had distinct originality,
discernible in his employment of curious rhythmic devices. His music is
ever ingenious and brilliantly effective.
LA MADDALENA, an island 2½ m. from the N.E. coast of Sardinia. Pop.
(1901) 8361. Napoleon bombarded it in 1793 without success, and Nelson
made it his headquarters for some time. It is now an important naval
station of the Italian fleet, the anchorage being good, and is strongly
fortified. A bridge and an embankment connect it with Caprera. It
appears to have been inhabited in Roman times.
LAMAISM, a system of doctrine partly religious, partly political.
Religiously it is the corrupt form of Buddhism prevalent in Tibet and
Mongolia. It stands in a relationship to primitive Buddhism similar to
that in which Roman Catholicism, so long as the temporal power of the
pope was still in existence, stood to primitive Christianity. The
ethical and metaphysical ideas most conspicuous in the doctrines of
Lamaism are not confined to the highlands of central Asia, they are
accepted in great measure also in Japan and China. It is the union of
these ideas with a hierarchical system, and with the temporal
sovereignty of the head of that system in Tibet, which constitutes what
is distinctively understood by the term Lamaism. Lamaism has acquired a
special interest to the student of comparative history through the
instructive parallel which its history presents to that of the Church of
Rome.