It forms a colourless syrup, of specific gravity 1.2485 (15°/4°), and
decomposes on distillation under ordinary atmospheric pressure; but at
very low pressures (about 1 mm.) it distils at about 85° C., and then
sets to a crystalline solid, which melts at about 18° C. It possesses
the properties both of an acid and of an alcohol. When heated with
dilute sulphuric acid to 130° C., under pressure, it is resolved into
formic acid and acetaldehyde. Chromic acid oxidizes it to acetic acid
and carbon dioxide; potassium permanganate oxidizes it to pyruvic
acid; nitric acid to oxalic acid, and a mixture of manganese dioxide
and sulphuric acid to acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide. Hydrobromic
acid converts it into [alpha]-brompropionic acid, and hydriodic acid
into propionic acid.
CH(CH3)·CO
/ \
_Lactide_, O O,
\ /
CO·CH(CH3)
a crystalline solid, of melting-point 124° C., is one of the products
obtained by the distillation of lactic acid.
LACTONES, the cyclic esters of hydroxy acids, resulting from the
internal elimination of water between the hydroxyl and carboxyl groups,
this reaction taking place when the hydroxy acid is liberated from its
salts by a mineral acid. The [alpha] and [beta]-hydroxy acids do not
form lactones, the tendency for lactone formation appearing first with
the [gamma]-hydroxy acids, thus [gamma]-hydroxybutyric acid,
CH2OH·CH2·CH2·CO2H, yields [gamma]-butyrolactone,
+--------------+
| |
CH2·CH2·CH2·CO·O.
These compounds may also be prepared by the distillation of the
[gamma]-halogen fatty acids, or by the action of alkaline carbonates on
these acids, or from [beta][gamma]- or [gamma][delta]-unsaturated acids
by digestion with hydrobromic acid or dilute sulphuric acid. The
lactones are mostly liquids which are readily soluble in alcohol, ether
and water. On boiling with water, they are partially reconverted into
the hydroxy acids. They are easily saponified by the caustic alkalis.
On the behaviour of lactones with ammonia, see H. Meyer,
_Monatshefte_, 1899, 20, p. 717; and with phenylhydrazine and
hydrazine hydrate, see R. Meyer, _Ber._, 1893, 26, p. 1273; L.
Gattermann, _Ber._, 1899, 32, p. 1133, E. Fischer, Ber., 1889, 22, p.
1889.
[gamma]-_Butyrolactone_ is a liquid which boils at 206° C. It is
miscible with water in all proportions and is volatile in steam,
[gamma]-_valerolactone_,
+-----------------+
| |
CH3·CH·CH2·CH2·CO·O,
is a liquid which boils at 207-208° C. [delta]-_lactones_ are also
known, and may be prepared by distilling the [delta]-chlor acids.
LA CUEVA, JUAN DE (1550?-1609?), Spanish dramatist and poet, was born at
Seville, and towards 1579 began writing for the stage. His plays,
fourteen in number, were published in 1588, and are the earliest
manifestations of the dramatic methods developed by Lope de Vega.
Abandoning the Senecan model hitherto universal in Spain, Cueva took for
his themes matters of national legend, historic tradition, recent
victories and the actualities of contemporary life: this amalgam of
epical and realistic elements, and the introduction of a great variety
of metres, prepared the way for the Spanish romantic drama of the 17th
century. A peculiar interest attaches to _El Infamador_, a play in which
the character of Leucino anticipates the classic type of Don Juan. As an
initiative force, Cueva is a figure of great historical importance; his
epic poem, _La Conquista de Bética_ (1603), shows his weakness as an
artist. The last work to which his name is attached is the _Ejemplar
poético_ (1609), and he is believed to have died shortly after its
publication.
See the editions of _Saco de Roma_ and _El Infamador_, by E. de Ochoa,
in the _Tesoro del teatro español_ (Paris, 1838), vol. i. pp. 251-285;
and of _Ejemplar poético_, by J. J. López de Sedano, in the _Parnaso
español_, vol. viii. pp. 1-68; also E. Walberg, "Juan de la Cueva et
son Ejemplar poético" in the _Acta Universitatis Lundensis_ (Lund,
1904), vol. xxix.; "Poèmes inédits de Juan de la Cueva (Viaje de
Sannio,)" edited by F. A. Wulff, in the _Acta Universitatis Lundensis_
(Lund, 1886-1887), vol. xxiii.; F. A. Wulff, "De la rimas de Juan de
la Cueva, Primera Parte" in the _Homenaje á Menéndez y Pelayo_
(Madrid, 1899), vol. ii. pp. 143-148. (J. F.-K.)
LACUNAR, the Latin name in architecture for a panelled or coffered
ceiling or soffit. The word is derived from _lacuna_, a cavity or
hollow, a blank, hiatus or gap. The panels or coffers of a ceiling are
by Vitruvius called _lacunaria_.
LACUZON (O. Fr. _la cuzon_, disturbance), the name given to the
Franc-Comtois leader CLAUDE PROST (1607-1681), who was born at
Longchaumois (department of Jura) on the 17th of June 1607. He gained
his first military experience when the French invaded Burgundy in 1636,
harrying the French troops from the castles of Montaigu and St
Laurent-la-Roche, and devastating the frontier districts of Bresse and
Bugey with fire and sword (1640-1642). In the first invasion of
Franche-Comté by Louis XIV. in 1668 Lacuzon was unable to make any
effective resistance, but he played an important part in Louis's second
invasion. In 1673 he defended Salins for some time; after the
capitulation of the town he took refuge in Italy. He died at Milan on
the 21st of December 1681.
LACY, FRANZ MORITZ, Count (1725-1801), Austrian field marshal, was born
at St Petersburg on the 21st of October 1725. His father, Peter, Count
Lacy, was a distinguished Russian soldier, who belonged to an Irish
family, and had followed the fortunes of the exiled James II. Franz
Moritz was educated in Germany for a military career, and entered the
Austrian service. He served in Italy, Bohemia, Silesia and the
Netherlands during the War of the Austrian Succession, was twice
wounded, and by the end of the war was a lieut.-colonel. At the age of
twenty-five he became full colonel and chief of an infantry regiment. In
1756 with the opening of the Seven Years' War he was again on active
service, and in the first battle (Lobositz) he distinguished himself so
much that he was at once promoted major-general. He received his third
wound on this occasion and his fourth at the battle of Prague in 1757.
Later in 1757 Lacy bore a conspicuous part in the great victory of
Breslau, and at Leuthen, where he received his fifth wound, he covered
the retreat of the defeated army. Soon after this began his association
with Field-Marshal Daun, the new generalissimo of the empress's forces,
and these two commanders, powerfully assisted later by the genius of
Loudon, made head against Frederick the Great for the remainder of the
war. A general staff was created, and Lacy, a lieutenant field-marshal
at thirty-two, was made chief of staff (quartermaster-general) to Daun.
That their cautiousness often degenerated into timidity may be
admitted--Leuthen and many other bitter defeats had taught the Austrians
to respect their great opponent--but they showed at any rate that,
having resolved to wear out the enemy by Fabian methods, they were
strong enough to persist in their resolve to the end. Thus for some
years the life of Lacy, as of Daun and Loudon, is the story of the war
against Prussia (see Seven Years' War). After Hochkirch (October 15,
1758) Lacy received the grand cross of the Maria Theresa order. In 1759
both Daun and Lacy fell into disfavour for failing to win victories, and
Lacy owed his promotion to Feldzeugmeister only to the fact that Loudon
had just received this rank for the brilliant conduct of his detachment
at Kunersdorf. His responsibilities told heavily on Lacy in the ensuing
campaigns, and his capacity for supreme command was doubted even by
Daun, who refused to give him the command when he himself was wounded at
the battle of Torgau.
After the peace of Hubertusburg a new sphere of activity was opened, in
which Lacy's special gifts had the greatest scope. Maria Theresa having
placed her son, the emperor Joseph II., at the head of Austrian military
affairs, Lacy was made a field-marshal, and given the task of reforming
and administering the army (1766). He framed new regulations for each
arm, a new code of military law, a good supply system. As the result of
his work the Austrian army was more numerous, far better equipped, and
cheaper than it had ever been before. Joseph soon became very intimate
with his military adviser, but this did not prevent his mother, after
she became estranged from the young emperor, from giving Lacy her full
confidence. His activities were not confined to the army. He was in
sympathy with Joseph's innovations, and was regarded by Maria Theresa as
a prime mover in the scheme for the partition of Poland. But his
self-imposed work broke down Lacy's health, and in 1773, in spite of the
remonstrances of Maria Theresa and of the emperor, he laid down all his
offices and went to southern France. On returning he was still unable to
resume office, though as an unofficial adviser in political and military
matters he was far from idle. In the brief and uneventful War of the
Bavarian Succession, Lacy and Loudon were the chief Austrian commanders
against the king of Prussia, and when Joseph II. at Maria Theresa's
death, became the sovereign of the Austrian dominions as well as
emperor, Lacy remained his most trusted friend. More serious than the
War of the Bavarian Succession was the Turkish war which presently broke
out. Lacy was now old and worn out, and his tenure of command therein
was not marked by any greater measure of success than in the case of the
other Austrian generals. His active career was at an end, although he
continued his effective interest in the affairs of the state and the
army throughout the reign of Joseph's successor, Leopold I. His last
years were spent in retirement at his castle of Neuwaldegg near Vienna.
He died at Vienna on the 24th of November 1801.
See memoir by A. v. Arneth in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_
(Leipzig, 1883).
LACY, HARRIETTE DEBORAH (1807-1874), English actress, was born in
London, the daughter of a tradesman named Taylor. Her first appearance
on the stage was at Bath in 1827 as Julia in _The Rivals_, and she was
immediately given leading parts there in both comedy and tragedy. Her
first London appearance was in 1830 as Nina, in Dimond's _Carnival of
Naples_. Her Rosalind, Aspatia (to Macready's Melantius) in _The
Bridal_, and Lady Teazle to the Charles Surface of Walter Lacy
(1809-1898)--to whom she was married in 1839--confirmed her position and
popularity. She was the original Helen in _The Hunchback_ (1832), and
also created Nell Gwynne in Jerrold's play of that name, and the heroine
in his _Housekeeper_. She was considered the first Ophelia of her day.
She retired in 1848.
LACY, MICHAEL ROPHINO (1795-1867), Irish musician, son of a merchant,
was born at Bilbao and appeared there in public as a violinist in 1801.
He was sent to study in Paris under Kreutzer, and soon began a
successful career, being known as "_Le Petit Espagnol_." He played in
London for some years after 1805, and then became an actor, but in 1818
resumed the musical profession, and in 1820 became leader of the ballet
at the King's theatre, London. He composed or adapted from other
composers a number of operas and an oratorio, _The Israelites in Egypt_.
He died in London on the 20th of September 1867.
LACYDES OF CYRENE, Greek philosopher, was head of the Academy at Athens
in succession to Arcesilaus about 241 B.C. Though some regard him as the
founder of the New Academy, the testimony of antiquity is that he
adhered in general to the theory of Arcesilaus, and, therefore, that he
belonged to the Middle Academy. He lectured in a garden called the
Lacydeum, which was presented to him by Attalus I. of Pergamum, and for
twenty-six years maintained the traditions of the Academy. He is said to
have written treatises, but nothing survives. Before his death he
voluntarily resigned his position to his pupils, Euander and Telecles.
Apart from a number of anecdotes distinguished rather for sarcastic
humour than for probability, Lacydes exists for us as a man of refined
character, a hard worker and an accomplished orator. According to
Athenaeus (x. 438) and Diogenes Laërtius (iv. 60) he died from excessive
drinking, but the story is discredited by the eulogy of Eusebius
(_Praep. Ev._ xiv. 7), that he was in all things moderate.
See Cicero, _Acad._ ii. 6; and Aelian, _V.H._ ii. 41; also articles
ACADEMY, ARCESILAUS, CARNEADES.
LADAKH AND BALTISTAN, a province of Kashmir, India. The name Ladak,
commonly but less correctly spelt Ladakh, and sometimes Ladag, belongs
primarily to the broad valley of the upper Indus in West Tibet, but
includes several surrounding districts in political connexion with it;
the present limits are between 75° 40´ and 80° 30´ E., and between 32°
25´ and 36° N. It is bounded N. by the Kuenlun range and the slopes of
the Karakoram, N.W. and W. by the dependency of Baltistan or Little
Tibet, S.W. by Kashmir proper, S. by British Himalayan territory, and E.
by the Tibetan provinces of Ngari and Rudok. The whole region lies very
high, the valleys of Rupshu in the south-east being 15,000 ft., and the
Indus near Leh 11,000 ft., while the average height of the surrounding
ranges is 19,000 ft. The proportion of arable and even possible pasture
land to barren rock and gravel is very small. Pop., including Baltistan
(1901) 165,992, of whom 30,216 in Ladakh proper are Buddhists, whereas
the Baltis have adopted the Shiah form of Islam.
The natural features of the country may be best explained by reference
to two native terms, under one or other of which every part is included;
viz. _changtang_, i.e. "northern, or high plain," where the amount of
level ground is considerable, and _rong_, i.e. "deep valley," where the
contrary condition prevails. The former predominates in the east,
diminishing gradually westwards. There, although the vast alluvial
deposits which once filled the valley to a remarkably uniform height of
about 15,000 ft. have left their traces on the mountain sides, they have
undergone immense denudation, and their débris now forms secondary
deposits, flat bottoms or shelving slopes, the only spots available for
cultivation or pasture. These masses of alluvium are often either
metamorphosed to a subcrystalline rock still showing the composition of
the strata, or simply consolidated by lime.
Grand scenery is exceptional, for the valleys are confined, and from the
higher points the view is generally of a confused mass of brown or
yellow hills, absolutely barren, and of no great apparent height. The
parallelism characteristic of the Himalayan ranges continues here, the
direction being north-west and south-east. A central range divides the
Indus valley, here 4 to 8 m. wide, from that of its north branch the
Shyok, which with its fertile tributary valley of Nubra is again bounded
on the north by the Karakoram. This central ridge is mostly syenitic
gneiss, and north-east from it are found, successively, Silurian slates,
Carboniferous shales and Triassic limestones, the gneiss recurring at
the Turkestan frontier. The Indus lies along the line which separates
the crystalline rocks from the Eocene sandstones and shales of the lower
range of hills on the left bank, the lofty mountains behind them
consisting of parallel bands of rocks from Silurian to Cretaceous.
Several lakes in the east districts at about 14,000 ft. have been of
much greater extent, and connected with the river systems of the
country, but they are now mostly without outlet, saline, and in process
of desiccation.
Leh is the capital of Ladakh, and the road to Leh from Srinagar lies up
the lovely Sind valley to the sources of the river at the Zoji La Pass
(11,300 ft.) in the Zaskar range. This is the range which, skirting the
southern edge of the upland plains of Deosai in Baltistan, divides them
from the valley of Kashmir, and then continues to Nanga Parbat (26,620
ft.) and beyond that mountain stretches to the north of Swat and Bajour.
To the south-east it is an unbroken chain till it merges into the line
of snowy peaks seen from Simla and the plains of India--the range which
reaches past Chini to the famous peaks of Gangotri, Nandadevi and Nampa.
It is the most central and conspicuous range in the Himalaya. The Zoji
La, which curves from the head of the Sind valley on to the bleak
uplands of Dras (where lies the road to the trough of the Indus and
Leh), is, in spite of its altitude, a pass on which little snow lies;
but for local accumulations, it would be open all the year round. It
affords a typical instance of that cutting-back process by which a
river-head may erode a channel through a watershed into the plateau
behind, there being no steep fall towards the Indus on the northern side
of the range. From the Zoji La the road continues by easy gradients,
following the line of the Dras drainage, to the Indus, when it turns up
the valley to Leh. From Leh there are many routes into Tibet, the best
known being that from the Indus valley to the Tibetan plateau, by the
Chang La, to Lake Pangkong and Rudok (14,000 ft.). Rudok occupies a
forward position on the western Tibetan border analogous to that of Leh
in Kashmir. The chief trade route to Lhasa from Leh, however, follows
the line offered by the valleys of the Indus and the Brahmaputra (or
Tsanpo), crossing the divide between these rivers north of Lake
Manasarowar.
The observatory at Leh is the most elevated observatory in Asia. "The
atmosphere of the Indus valley is remarkably clear and transparent, and
the heat of the sun is very great. There is generally a difference of
more than 60° between the reading of the exposed sun thermometer _in
vacuo_ and the air temperature in the shade, and this difference has
occasionally exceeded 90°.... The mean annual temperature at Leh is 40°,
that of the coldest months (January and February) only 18° and 19°, but
it rises rapidly from February to July, in which month it reaches 62°
with a mean diurnal maximum of 80° both in that month and August, and an
average difference of 29° or 30° between the early morning and
afternoon. The mean highest temperature of the year is 90°, varying
between 84° and 93° in the twelve years previous to 1893. On the other
hand, in the winter the minimum thermometer falls occasionally below 0°,
and in 1878 reached as low as 17° below zero. The extreme range of
recorded temperature is therefore not less than 110°. The air is as dry
as Quetta, and rather more uniformly so.... The amount of rain and snow
is insignificant. The average rain (and snow) fall is only 2.7 in. in
the year."[1] The winds are generally light, and depend on the local
direction of the valleys. At Leh, which stands at the entrance of the
valley leading to the Kardang Pass, the most common directions are
between south and west in the daytime and summer, and from north-east in
the night, especially in the later months of the year. In January and
February the air is generally calm, and April and May are the most windy
months of the year.
Vegetation is confined to valleys and sheltered spots, where a stunted
growth of tamarisk and _Myricaria_, _Hippophae_ and _Elaeagnus_,
furze, and the roots of _burtsi_, a salsolaceous plant, supply the
traveller with much-needed firewood. The trees are the pencil cedar
(_Juniperus excelsa_), the poplar and willow (both extensively
planted, the latter sometimes wild), apple, mulberry, apricot and
walnut. Irrigation is skilfully managed, the principal products being
wheat, a beardless variety of barley called _grim_, millet, buckwheat,
pease, beans and turnips. Lucerne and prangos (an umbelliferous plant)
are used as fodder.
Among domestic animals are the famous shawl goat, two kinds of sheep,
of which the larger (_huniya_) is used for carrying burdens, and is a
principal source of wealth, the yak and the dso, a valuable hybrid
between the yak and common cow. Among wild animals are the kiang or
wild ass, ibex, several kinds of wild sheep, antelope (_Pantholops_),
marmot, hare and other Tibetan fauna.
The present value of the trade between British India and Tibet passing
through Ladakh is inconsiderable. Ladakh, however, is improving in its
trade prospects apart from Tibet. It is curious that both Ladakh and
Tibet import a considerable amount of treasure, for on the borders of
western Tibet and within a radius of 100 or 200 m. of Leh there
centres a gold-mining industry which apparently only requires
scientific development to render it enormously productive. Here the
surface soil has been for many centuries washed for gold by bands of
Tibetan miners, who never work deeper than 20 to 50 ft., and whose
methods of washing are of the crudest description. They work in
winter, chiefly because of the binding power of frost on the friable
soil, suffering great hardships and obtaining but a poor return for
their labour. But the remoteness of Ladakh and its extreme altitude
still continue to bar the way to substantial progress, though its
central position naturally entitles it to be a great trade mart.
The adjoining territory of Baltistan forms the west extremity of
Tibet, whose natural limits here are the Indus from its abrupt
southward bend in 74° 45´ E., and the mountains to the north and west,
separating a comparatively peaceful Tibetan population from the
fiercer Aryan tribes beyond. Mahommedan writers about the 16th century
speak of Baltistan as "Little Tibet," and of Ladakh as "Great Tibet,"
thus ignoring the really Great Tibet altogether. The Balti call Gilgit
"a Tibet," and Dr Leitner says that the Chilasi call themselves Bot or
Tibetans; but, although these districts may have been overrun by the
Tibetans, or have received rulers of that race, the ethnological
frontier coincides with the geographical one given. Baltistan is a
mass of lofty mountains, the prevailing formation being gneiss. In the
north is the Baltoro glacier, the largest out of the arctic regions,
35 m. long, contained between two ridges whose highest peaks to the
south are 25,000 and to the north 28,265 ft. The Indus, as in Lower
Ladakh, runs in a narrow gorge, widening for nearly 20 m. after
receiving the Shyok. The capital, Skardu, a scattered collection of
houses, stands here, perched on a rock 7250 ft. above the sea. The
house roofs are flat, occupied only in part by a second story, the
remaining space being devoted to drying apricots, the chief staple of
the main valley, which supports little cultivation. But the rapid
slope westwards is seen generally in the vegetation. Birch, plane,
spruce and _Pinus excelsa_ appear; the fruits are finer, including
pomegranate, pear, peach, vine and melon, and where irrigation is
available, as in the North Shigar, and at the deltas of the tributary
valleys, the crops are more luxuriant and varied.
_History._--The earliest notice of Ladakh is by the Chinese pilgrim
Fa-hien, A.D. 400, who, travelling in search of a purer faith, found
Buddhism flourishing there, the only novelty to him being the
prayer-cylinder, the efficacy of which he declares is incredible. Ladakh
formed part of the Tibetan empire until its disruption in the 10th
century, and since then has continued ecclesiastically subject, and
sometimes tributary, to Lhasa. Its inaccessibility saved it from any
Mussulman invasion until 1531, when Sultan Said of Kashgar marched an
army across the Karakoram, one division fighting its way into Kashmir
and wintering there. Next year they invaded eastern Tibet, where nearly
all perished from the effects of the climate.
Early in the 17th century Ladakh was invaded by its Mahommedan
neighbours of Baltistan, who plundered and destroyed the temples and
monasteries; and again, in 1685-1688, by the Sokpa, who were expelled
only by the aid of the lieutenant of Aurangzeb in Kashmir, Ladakh
thereafter becoming tributary. The gyalpo or king then made a nominal
profession of Islam, and allowed a mosque to be founded at Leh, and the
Kashmiris have ever since addressed his successors by a Mahommedan
title. When the Sikhs took Kashmir, Ladakh, dreading their approach,
offered allegiance to Great Britain. It was, however, conquered and
annexed in 1834-1841 by Gulab Singh of Jammu--the unwar-like Ladakhis,
even with nature fighting on their side, and against indifferent
generalship, being no match for the Dogra troops. These next turned
their arms successfully against the Baltis (who in the 18th century were
subject to the Mogul), and were then tempted to revive the claims of
Ladakh to the Chinese provinces of Rudok and Ngari. This, however,
brought down an army from Lhasa, and after a three days' fight the
Indian force was almost annihilated--chiefly indeed by frostbite and
other sufferings, for the battle was fought in mid-winter, 15,000 ft.
above the sea. The Chinese then marched on Leh, but were soon driven out
again, and peace was finally made on the basis of the old frontier. The
widespread prestige of China is illustrated by the fact that tribute,
though disguised as a present, is paid to her, for Ladakh, by the
maharaja of Kashmir.
The principal works to be consulted are F. Drew, _The Jummoo and
Kashmir Territories_; Cunningham, _Ladak_; Major J. Biddulph, _The
Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_; Ramsay, _Western Tibet_; Godwin-Austen,
"The Mountain Systems of the Himalaya," vol. vi., _Proc. R.G.S._
(1884); W. Lawrence, _The Valley of Kashmir_ (1895); H. F. Blandford,
_The Climate and Weather of India_ (1889). (T. H. H.*)