Summary of information obtained during this
visit to Borneo.--Geographical and topographical
observations.--Produce.--Various Dyak tribes.--Natural
history.--Language.--Origin of Races.--Sail from
Singapore.--Celebes.--Face of the country.--Waterfall.
Mr. Brooke's journal continues his observations on the people and
country he had just left; and, I need hardly say, communicates much
of novelty and interest in his own plain and simple manner.
"_Oct. 5th._--Just laying our course. I may here briefly
recapitulate the information acquired during the last two months and
a half. Beginning from Tanjong Api, we have delineated the coast as
far as Tanjong Balaban, fixing the principal points by chronometer and
observation, and filling in the details by personal inspection. The
distance, on a line drawn along the headlands, may be from 120 to
130 miles, the entire coast being previously quite unknown.
"Within this space are many fine rivers, and some navigable for
vessels of considerable burden, and well calculated for the extension
of commerce, such as Sarawak, Morotaba, and Sadung. The others, equally
fine streams, are barred, but offer admirable means for an easy inland
communication; these are the Quop, Boyur, Riam, Samarahan, Lundu,
Samatan, &c. In our excursions into the interior of the island, most
of these streams have been ascended to a distance of 25 or 30 miles,
and some further. We traced the Samarahan river for 70 or 80 miles from
its mouth, and passed through portions of the intermediate streams of
the Riam, Quop, and Boyur. The Morotaba, which is but another mouth
of the Sarawak, we passed through several times from the sea to its
junction with that river. The Lundu and Sadung rivers were likewise
ascended to the distance of near 30 miles; and plans of all these
rivers have been taken as accurately as circumstances would permit,
by observations of the latitude and longitude, and various points,
and an eye-sketch of the distance of each reach and the compass
bearing. The entrances into the Sarawak and Morotaba were carefully
examined, and the former accurately laid down. The productions of
the country attracted our attention, and the articles best fitted
for commerce have been already enumerated. Among these are, first,
minerals; say gold, tin, probably copper, antimony-ore, and fine
white clay for pipes. Secondly, woods of the finest descriptions,
for ship-building, and other purposes; besides aloes wood (_lignum
aloes_), and arang or ebony wood, canes, and ratans. To these may be
added, among vegetable productions, sago, compon, rice, &c., &c.
"The wild nutmeg was found growing on the islands of Sadung and
Sumpudin in abundance and perfection, proving that by cultivation it
might be brought into the market as cheap, and probably as good,
as those produced in the Moluccas. We have various specimens
of ores and stones, which, on being tested, may prove valuable
commodities. Among these is decomposed granite rock (I believe),
containing minute particles of what we conceive to be gold, and an
ore believed to be copper. Besides the articles above enumerated,
are birds' nests and bees' wax in considerable quantities, and others
not worth detailing here. We have been able, during our residence
with the Borneons, to continue on the most friendly terms with them,
and to open a field of research for our subsequent inquiries in the
proper season. My attention has been anxiously directed to acquiring
a knowledge of the Dyak tribes; and for this purpose I passed ten days
among them at Lundu. I have made such vocabularies of the language of
the Sibnowans and Lundus as my means allowed; and a further addition
of their various dialects will furnish, I conceive, matters of high
importance to those interested in tracing the emigration of nations. I
may here briefly notice, that the nation of Kayans, included under the
common denomination of Dyak, are a tattooed race, who use the sumpitan,
or blow-pipe; while the other Dyak tribes (which are very numerous)
are not tattooed, and never use the blow-pipe.
"The arms and instruments of many tribes are in my possession; and
among the Sibnowans I had the opportunity of becoming acquainted with
their habits, customs, and modes of living.
"The appellation of the Dyak tribes near the coast is usually the
same as the rivers from which they originally came. The Dyaks of
Sibnow come from the river of that name, just beyond Balaban Point,
though large communities are dispersed on the Lundu and the Sadung. The
same may be said of the Sarebus tribe (the most predaceous and wild
on the coast), which has powerful branches of the original stock on
the Skarran river. Beyond Point Balaban is a bay--between that point
and Point Samaludum; the first river is the Sibnow; the next the
Balonlupon, which branches into the rivers of Sakarran and Linga;
passing Tanjong Samaludum you come to the two islands of Talison;
and between it and the next point, or Banting Marron, lies the Sarebus
river. Between Banting Marron and Tanjong Siri are the Kaleka river,
a high mountain called Maban, and then Rejong, the chief river of the
Kayans. I may here likewise correct some of the statements and names
usually current in England. The Idaan, represented as a Dyak tribe,
are a hill people, and probably not Dyaks; and the name Marat is
applied by the natives of Borneo to the various wild tribes, Dyaks
and others, without any specific meaning.
"In natural history the expedition has done as much as was in its
power, by forming collections of birds, animals, and reptiles; but
these collections are as small as our means. Specimens of woods and
seeds have been preserved; but the season was not the proper one for
flowers, as very few indeed were seen. The specimen of the hand of
the mias pappan and the head of an adult mias rombi will, I believe,
go far to establish the existence of an animal similar to the Pongo
of the Count Buffon. I have little doubt that I shall be able in the
ensuing season to establish the fact, or set it at rest forever;
though I confess myself greatly inclined to think that the former
will be the case. I here leave the coast with an excellent prospect
for the coming year; and I would not now have quitted it so soon,
but for the want of provisions, added to which, the change of the
monsoon, bringing squally and dark weather, greatly interferes with
our further progress in surveying.
"_Nov. 22d, 1839._--The Malayan language has been compared to the
_lingua franca_ of Europe. They are both, indeed, used by various
nations in their commercial transactions; but, beyond this, nothing
can be more unjust or absurd than the comparison. The _lingua franca_
is a jargon compounded at random, devoid of grammar or elegance; the
Malayan, on the contrary, is musical, simple in its construction,
and well calculated for the expression of poetry. It boasts many
dialects, like the Italian, of superior softness, and, like the
Italian, it is derived from many sources, refining all to the most
liquid sounds by the addition of a final vowel. I fully concur with
Mr. Marsden in his opinion that the Malayan tongue, though derived
from the Sanscrit, the Arabic, the Hindoostani, &c., &c., is based
on the language which he calls the Polynesian; a language which may
be considered original (as far as we know), and which embraces so
vast an extent of geographical surface. The proof of this rests
mainly on the fact that the simple wants of man, as well as the
most striking features of nature, are expressed in the Polynesian;
while the secondary class of ideas is derived from the Sanscrit, or
some other language, and usually grafted in a felicitous manner on the
original stem. By an original language, I must be understood, however,
to mean only a language which can not be derived from any other
known tongue. I seek not to trace the language of Noah, or to raise
a theory which shall derive the finished and grammatical Sanscrit,
the pure and elegant Greek, from some barbarous stock, whether Celtic
or Teutonic. Such inquiries are fitted for those with leisure and
patience to undertake a hopeless task, and learning enough to achieve
better things. When we look for the origin of languages we are lost,
for those existing afford us no help. They present some affinities,
as might be expected; but their discrepancies are irreconcilable; and,
amid many equally good claims, who shall be able to demonstrate the
only one which is right? Supposing even that all languages agreed as
to primary ideas, it would be difficult to determine the original; but
when this primary class of ideas is expressed by sounds entirely and
totally different, the task becomes utterly hopeless, and the labor
as vain as that of Sisyphus. Indeed, it would be very difficult to
show how languages, derived from one stock, could possibly differ so
far in their expression of the simplest ideas and wants as not to be
mutually traceable: and truly, until this is done (which I conceive
impossible), I am content to rest in the belief that there are more
original languages _than one_--a conclusion agreeable to common sense,
and consonant with the early history of the Hebrews.
"To trace the original identity of distant races, and their early
migrations, through the affinity of language, is indeed a limited
task compared with the other, but one both feasible and useful. To
further this labor, the smallest additional information is valuable;
and the dialects of the rude people inhabiting the interior of the
islands of Borneo and Celebes would be highly important. Previously,
however, to instituting such a comparison, as far as in my power, I
propose taking a brief glance at the different races whose languages
may be included under the common name of Polynesian.
"In the first place, the Malayan. Issuing from the interior of Sumatra,
there is reason to conjecture, and even facts to prove, that originally
the dialect of Menangkabau resembled the other dialects of its
birthplace. The gradual extension of a warlike race gave a polish to
the language; additional wants, increasing luxury, extended knowledge,
and contact with the merchants of many Eastern nations, all combined
to produce the Malayan in its present form. But, during the progress
of this change, the radical Polynesian stock remained; and we find,
consequently, that the words necessary to mankind in their earliest
stage bear a striking and convincing resemblance to the dialects of
Rejong and Lampung, in Sumatra. Subsequent improvements were largely
adopted from the Sanscrit and the Arabic; but the fact of the primary
ideas being expressed in the Polynesian must preclude the conclusion
of either of these being the source whence the Malayan is derived,
its improvement and extension being alone referable to them. Marsden
positively states his inability to trace the Polynesian to any other
Eastern language; and, at the same time, he has demonstrated, in
what he considers a convincing manner, the identity of this language
from Madagascar and the islands of the Pacific to the Philippines
and Sumatra.
"It may here be incidentally remarked, that while so many authors are
endeavoring to prove that the Asiatic archipelago was peopled from the
Western Continent, [8] they overlook the fact of the radical difference
of language. Unless the roots of the language can be traced either to
India, Cambodia, or other parts, it must follow, as a matter of course,
that the islands were peopled at a time previous to the introduction of
the language now spoken on the Continent; else how are we to account
for the simple dialects of a rude people being radically distinct
from the language of the mother country? If the Dyaks of Borneo
and the Arafuras of Celebes and New Guinea speak a dialect of the
Polynesian, it will go far to prove an original people as well as an
original language, that is, as original as the Celtic, the Teutonic,
the South American; original because not derived from any known source.
"These brief remarks on the Malayan will, I believe, apply to the
language of the Island of Java, which, equally improved and enlarged by
the addition of Sanscrit and Arabic words, and differently modified,
retains, nevertheless, its radical Polynesian stock and its distinct
written character, as do likewise the dialects of the islands of Bally
and Lombock. The districts of Rejong, Lampung, &c., in Sumatra, retain
the original language in a much higher degree, possess distinctive
written characters, and have little intermixture of Sanscrit or
Arabic. Celebes, or Bugis-land, with a distinct language and character,
will probably be found to follow the same rule; and the Philippines,
including Mindanao, according to Marsden, possess the same language,
though altered and modified into the Tagala tongue.
"Madagascar, so far removed, exhibits in its language a dialect of
Tagala, or, strictly speaking, of Polynesian; and the South Sea islands
present striking and almost convincing proofs of the same origin.
"The inquiry ought to be pushed to the languages of the Mexicans and
Peruvians of South America; and, as far as our knowledge permits,
their identity established or disproved; for the language of this
by-gone people would go far toward tracing the course of emigration,
it being evident that a strong argument would be raised in favor of
the migration proceeding from east to west, if the language is common
to South America and Sumatra, and not traceable to any country of
the Continent of India.
"It remains, however, to inquire into the language of the interior
tribes of Borneo, Celebes, and New Guinea; and, on such inquiry,
should they be found to possess the same primary roots as the rest, I
believe the conclusion must ultimately be arrived at of the existence
of a Polynesian language common to this vast geographical extent,
and distinct from the languages of Asia. In tracing this identity,
we can only, of course, find it in few instances in the cultivated
Javanese and Malayan languages. Discrepancies must naturally be great
from the intermixture, from early recorded times, of all languages
in the archipelago; but, nevertheless, if the radical affinities be
striking, they will be conclusive in establishing the original identity
of all the races before mentioned; for, without this original identity,
how can we account for these affinities of language? It may, indeed,
be urged that this language has gradually crept into the dialects of
Java and Menangkabau. But, in the first place, the affinities will
be found in the very roots of the language--in the expressions for
the primary and necessary ideas, which seldom alter in any people;
in the next, there is a high degree of improbability in supposing
a rude dialect to supplant a substantial portion of a more polished
one; and, thirdly, we must not overlook the collateral evidence of the
similarity of conformation pervading the entire race from Polynesia to
the archipelago--distinct alike from the Caucasian and the Mongolian.
"In tracing the identity of this language, we may reckon the dialects
of the Dyaks of Borneo, &c., as the lowest step of the ladder; those
of the Pacific islands next; and so through the dialects of Sumatra and
Tagala, up to the Malayan and Javanese. For this purpose, a comparative
view of all must be attained; and Eastern scholars should point out,
when possible, the words taken from Sanscrit and other languages. For
my own part, these remarks are made as a sketch to be enlarged on,
and to assist in obtaining the vocabularies of the Dyaks and Arafuras.
"_Dec. 6th._--In looking over Marsden's admirable Introduction to his
Malayan Grammar, I find I have taken many of his views in the foregoing
remarks; but I consider that his opinions may be pushed to conclusions
more extended than he has ventured upon. Having described the 'exterior
circumstance' of the Malayan language, he proceeds to point out those
more original languages from whence we may presume it to be derived.
"'The words of which it consists may be divided into three classes,
and that two of these are Hindoo and Arabic has been generally
admitted. The doubts that have arisen respect only the third, or
that original and essential part which, to the Malayan, stands in the
same relation as the Saxon to the English, and which I have asserted
to be one of the numerous dialects of the widely-extended language
found to prevail, with strong features of similarity, throughout
the archipelago on the hither side of New Guinea, and, with a less
marked resemblance, among the islands of the Pacific Ocean.... To
show the general identity, or radical connection of its dialects,
and, at the same time, their individual differences, I beg leave to
refer the reader [9] to the tables annexed to a paper on the subject
which I presented, so long ago as the year 1780, to the Society of
Antiquaries, and is printed in vol. vi. of the _Archaeologia_; also,
a table of comparative numerals, in the appendix to vol. iii. of
Captain Cook's last voyage; and likewise to the chart of ten numerals,
in two hundred languages, by the Rev. R. Patrick, recently published
in Valpy's _Classical, Biblical and Oriental Journal_.'
"Again, Marsden states:
"'But whatever pretensions any particular spot may have to precedence
in this respect, the so wide dissemination of a language common to all
bespeaks a high degree of antiquity, and gives a claim to originality,
as far as we can venture to apply that term, which signifies no more
than the state beyond which we have not the means, either historically
or by fair inference, of tracing the origin. In this restricted sense
it is that we are justified in considering the main portion of the
Malayan as original, or indigenous, _its affinity to any Continental
tongue not having yet been shown_; and least of all can we suppose
it connected with the monosyllabic, or Indo-Chinese, with which it
has been classed.'
"When we find an original language bearing no traces of being derived
from any Continental tongue, we must conclude the people likewise to
be original, in the restricted sense, or to have emigrated with their
language from some source hitherto unknown. The Sanscrit and Arabic
additions to the original stock are well marked, though the period
of the introduction of the former is hidden in darkness. It may be
inferred, however, that it came with the Hindoo religion, the remains
of which are yet in existence. It is evident that the question resolves
itself into two distinct branches: first, the original language, its
extent, the coincidence of its dialects, its source, &c.; secondly,
its discrepancies, whence arising, &c.; together with the inquiry into
the probable time and mode of the introduction of the Sanscrit. With
the latter of these inquiries I have nothing to do; on the former
subject I may collect some valuable information by adding the dialects
of the savage tribes in the interior of Borneo and Celebes.
"The alphabets of the island of Java, of the Tagala, and the Bugis
of Celebes, are given by Corneille, Le Brun, Thevenot, and Forrest."
Of Mr. Brooke's sojourn at Singapore it is unnecessary to speak; and
I accordingly resume my extracts with his ensuing voyage from that
port, and again for the Indian archipelago, but contenting myself,
for reasons which need not be entered into at length, with only
that portion of his excursion to Celebes and among the Bugis which
particularly bears upon his Borneon sequel.
"_Dec. 7th, 1839._--Off Great Solombo. Never was there a more tedious
passage than ours has been from Singapore. Sailing from that place on
the 20th of November, we have encountered a succession of calms and
light winds--creeping some days a few miles, and often lying becalmed
for forty-eight hours without a breath to fill the sails. Passing
through the straits of Rhio and Banca, and watering at the islands of
Nanka, we stood thence for Pulo Babian, or Lubeck, lay a night becalmed
close to the Arrogants Shoal, of which, however, we saw nothing,
owing, probably, to the smoothness of the water. The depths are
greater than laid down on Horsburgh's chart, varying from thirty-six
to thirty-eight fathoms. A calm now keeps us off the greater Solombo,
which it is my intention to visit when in my power.
"_8th._--Drifted past Solombo in the calm, and, reluctant to return,
I continued on my voyage with a light breeze from the eastward. This
island is well laid down: from the sea we made its longitude 113 deg. 31';
Horsburgh gives it 113 deg. 28', which, considering that both observations
were made afloat, is a near enough approximation. The land is low, with
a single hill, showing round from the westward, flat or wedge-shaped
from the eastward. The smaller Solombo is low: both wooded.
"_10th._--In sight of Laurots islands.
"_11th._--In the evening stood within four miles of the southern island
of Laurots. These islands are high and steep, covered with wood, and
uninhabited. The easternmost island seems, by bearings, badly laid
down, being not far enough to the southward and eastward. The southern
island is called by the Bugis, Mata Siri; the eastern, Kadapangan;
the northern one, Kalambow. A few rocks and islets lay off them;
water deep, and apparently clear of all danger.
"_15th._--Turatte Bay. After experiencing continued calms and light
winds, and falling short of water, we at length reached this bay, and
anchored in 7 1/2 fathoms. The first impression of Celebes is highly
favorable. The mountains present a bold outline, and rise in confused
masses, until crowned by what is commonly called _Bonthian Hill_. The
sides of the mountains slope gradually to the sea, and present an
inviting and diversified aspect of wood and cleared land. I dispatched
a boat for water to a small village; and the crew were well received
by the natives, after they became assured that they were not pirates.
"The outline of this bay, in Norie's chart, is not badly laid down; but
on either side there is great room for improvement and survey. Turatte
Bay may be fairly so called, as the district (or _negri_) generally
bears that name. The larboard point of Turatte Bay (approaching)
is called Malasaro, which comes next to Tanjong Layken in the
charts. The starboard point is Tanjong Uju Loke, and from Uju Loke
the land runs low to the point of Galumpang, the entrance of a river
marked in the charts. From Uju Loke (named Bolo Bolo in Norie's chart)
the coast-line runs for 12 or 15 miles to Bolo Bolo, which space is
entirely omitted. Bolo Bolo forms the entrance of Bonthian Bay.
"_16th._--Bonthian Bay. Called Banthi by the natives: is in lat. 5 deg.
37' S.; long. 119 deg. 33' E.
"The bay is pretty well laid down by Dalrymple. The small Dutch fort,
or intrenchment, stands rather on the eastern bight of the bay, and
is composed of a few huts, surrounded by a ditch and green bank. Two
guns at each corner compose its strength, and the garrison consists of
about thirty Dutchmen and a few Javanese soldiers. We were cordially
and hospitably received by the officers, and, after a great deal
of trouble and many excuses, here procured horses to carry us to
the waterfall. Bonthian Hill is immediately over this place; a flat
space of rice-ground, some miles in extent, only intervening. The
hill (so called) may with more propriety be designated as a range
of mountains, which here attain their utmost height and sink down
gradually almost across the peninsula. The view is most attractive;
the green and refreshing rice-grounds in the front and behind, the
slopes of the mountain and its various peaks, verdant grass, wooded
chasms, and all the inequalities which mark a mountain region. I am
very anxious to mount to the summit; but so many difficulties are
thrown in the way, that I almost despair--horses and guides are not
to be procured. The Dutch say the natives are lazy: the natives say
they dare not go without authority--either way we are the losers;
but the officers certainly exert themselves in our favor. Coming
into this bay, there is some difficulty in distinguishing the fort;
but coming from the westward, its position may readily be known by
steering for two lumps on the S.E. declivity of the mountain.
"_18th._--Got ashore by seven o'clock to start for the waterfall;
till nine we were detained by want of horses, but after much trouble
the animals were procured, and off we started. Our party consisted
of three doctors (him of the fortification, a German gentleman,
Treacher, and Theylingen) and myself, with native guides. The road
lay for a short way along the beach, then struck into the thicket,
and we commenced a gradual ascent. The scenery was most striking and
lovely; glades and glens, grassy knolls and slopes, with scattered
trees, and the voice of a hidden river which reached our ears from
a deep valley on the left hand. Proceeding thus for some distance,
we at length plunged into the wood, and descending a short space,
found ourselves by the sides of the stream below the waterfall. Here,
breakfast being finished, we all stripped to our trowsers, entered the
water, and advanced along the bed of the river to the fall. The banks
on either hand, steep and woody, prevented any other mode of approach,
and the stream, rushing down and falling over huge rocks, rendered the
only available one any thing but easy. At times we were up to the arms,
then crawling out and stealing with care over wet and slippery stones,
now taking advantage of a few yards of dry ground, and ever and anon
swimming a pool to shorten an unpleasant climb. In this manner we
advanced about half a mile, when the fall became visible; thick trees
and hanging creepers intervened; between and through the foliage we
first saw the water glancing and shining in its descent. The effect
was perfect. After some little further and more difficult progress,
we stood beneath the fall, of about 150 feet sheer descent. The wind
whirled in eddies, and carried the sleet over us, chilling our bodies,
but unable to damp our admiration. The basin of the fall is part of a
circle, with the outlet forming a funnel; bare cliffs, perpendicular on
all sides, form the upper portion of the vale, and above and below is
all the luxuriant vegetation of the East; trees, arched and interlaced,
and throwing down long fantastic roots and creepers, shade the scene,
and form one of the richest sylvan prospects I have ever beheld. The
water, foaming and flashing, and then escaping amid huge gray stones
on its troubled course--clear and transparent, expanding into tranquil
pools, with the flickering sunshine through the dense foliage--all
combine to form at scene such as Tasso has described. [10]
"Inferior in body of water to many falls in Switzerland, it is superior
to any in sylvan beauty; its deep seclusion, its undisturbed solitude,
and the difficulty of access, combine to heighten its charms to
the imagination. Our descent was like our upward progress. Having
again dressed ourselves, we rested for a time, and then started
for Bonthian--wearing away the rest of the day shooting amid the
hills. Theylingen and myself procured many specimens, and returned
laden with our spoil, and charmed with our day's excursion. The
waterfall is called Sapo, from the neighboring green peak of that
name. The height of our resting-place (not the highest point of the
day's ascent) was 750.5 feet, by Newman's two barometers; yet this is
the bottom of the mountain on its western slope. The officers dined
with us; they are very polite and kind; and we retired early to rest,
all the better for our excursion.
"_19th._--At 6 A.M. went with the Dutch officers shooting, and reached
the same stream which forms the waterfall. The scenery delightful;
water cool, and pleasant for bathing, a luxury I enjoyed in high
perfection. Aboard again to a late breakfast."