THE RECENT DISCOVERY OF THE MUMMIES OF THOTHMES III. AND RAMESES II. AT
DEIR-EL-BAHARI.
In Cairo, at the Boolak Museum, there is a vast collection of Egyptian
antiquities, even more valuable than the collections to be seen at the
British Museum, and at the Louvre, Paris. The precious treasures of the
Boolak Museum were for the most part collected through the indefatigable
labours of the late Mariette Bey. Since his death the charge of the Museum
has been entrusted to the two well-known Egyptologists, Professor Maspero
and Herr Emil Brugsch.
Professor Maspero lately remarked that for the last ten years he had
noticed with considerable astonishment that many valuable Egyptian relics
found their way in a mysterious manner to European museums as well as to
the private collections of European noblemen. He therefore suspected that
the Arabs in the neighbourhood of Thebes, in Upper Egypt, had discovered
and were plundering some royal tombs. This suspicion was intensified by
the fact that Colin Campbell, on returning to Cairo from a visit to Upper
Egypt, showed to the Professor some pages of a superb royal ritual,
purchased from some Arabs at Thebes. M. Maspero accordingly made a journey
to Thebes, and on arriving at the place, conferred on the subject with
Daoud Pasha, the governor of the district, and offered a handsome reward
to any person who would give information of any recently discovered royal
tombs.
Behind the ruins of the Ramesseum is a terrace of rock-hewn tombs,
occupied by the families of four brothers named Abd-er-Rasoul. The
brothers professed to be guides and donkey-masters, but in reality they
made their livelihood by tomb-breaking and mummy-snatching. Suspicion at
once fell upon them, and a mass of concurrent testimony pointed to the
four brothers as the possessors of the secret. With the approval of the
district governor, one of the brothers, Ahmed-Abd-er-Rasoul, was arrested
and sent to prison at Keneh, the chief town of the district. Here he
remained in confinement for two months, and preserved an obstinate
silence. At length Mohammed, the eldest brother, fearing that Ahmed's
constancy might give way, and fearing lest the family might lose the
reward offered by M. Maspero, came to the governor and volunteered to
divulge the secret. Having made his depositions, the governor telegraphed
to Cairo, whither the Professor had returned. It was felt that no time
should be lost. Accordingly M. Maspero empowered Herr Emil Brugsch, keeper
of the Boolak Museum, and Ahmed Effendi Kemal, also of the Museum service,
to proceed without delay to Upper Egypt. In a few hours from the arrival
of the telegram the Boolak officials were on their way to Thebes. The
distance of the journey is about five hundred miles; and as a great part
had to be undertaken by the Nile steamer, four days elapsed before they
reached their destination, which they did on Wednesday, 6th July, 1881.
On the western side of the Theban plain rises a high mass of limestone
rock, enclosing two desolate valleys. One runs up behind the ridge into
the very heart of the hills, and being entirely shut in by the limestone
cliffs, is a picture of wild desolation. The other valley runs up from the
plain, and its mouth opens out towards the city of Thebes. "The former is
the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings--the Westminster Abbey of Thebes; the
latter, of the Tombs of the Priests and Princes--its Canterbury
Cathedral." High up among the limestone cliffs, and near the plateau
overlooking the plain of Thebes, is the site of an old temple, known as
"Deir-el-Bahari."
At this last-named place, according to agreement, the Boolak officials met
Mohammed Abd-er-Rasoul, a spare, sullen fellow, who simply from love of
gold had agreed to divulge the grand secret. Pursuing his way among
desecrated tombs, and under the shadow of precipitous cliffs, he led his
anxious followers to a spot described as "unparalleled, even in the
desert, for its gaunt solemnity." Here, behind a huge fragment of fallen
rock, perhaps dislodged for that purpose from the cliffs overhead, they
were shown the entrance to a pit so ingeniously hidden that, to use their
own words, "one might have passed it twenty times without observing it."
The shaft of the pit proved to be six and a-half feet square; and on being
lowered by means of a rope, they touched the ground at a depth of about
forty feet.
Truth is sometimes stranger than fiction, and certainly nothing in
romantic literature can surpass in dramatic interest the revelation which
awaited the Boolak officials in the subterranean sepulchral chambers of
Deir-el-Bahari. At the bottom of the shaft the explorers noticed a dark
passage running westward; so, having lit their candles, they groped their
way slowly along the passage, which ran in a straight line for
twenty-three feet, and then turned abruptly to the right, stretching away
northward into total darkness. At the corner where the passage turned
northward, they found a royal funeral canopy, flung carelessly down in a
tumbled heap. As they proceeded, they found the roof so low in some places
that they were obliged to stoop, and in other parts the rocky floor was
very uneven. At a distance of sixty feet from the corner, the explorers
found themselves at the top of a flight of stairs, roughly hewn out of the
rock. Having descended the steps, each with his flickering candle in hand,
they pursued their way along a passage slightly descending, and
penetrating deeper and further into the heart of the mountain. As they
proceeded, the floor became more and more strewn with fragments of mummy
cases and tattered pieces of mummy bandages.
Presently they noticed boxes piled on the top of each other against the
wall, and these boxes proved to be filled with porcelain statuettes,
libation jars, and canopic vases of precious alabaster. Then appeared
several huge coffins of painted wood; and great was their joy when they
gazed upon a crowd of mummy cases, some standing, some laid upon the
ground, each fashioned in human form, with folded hands and solemn faces.
On the breast of each was emblazoned the name and titles of the occupant.
Words fail to describe the joyous excitement of the scholarly explorers,
when among the group they read the names of Seti I., Thothmes II.,
Thothmes III., and Rameses II., surnamed the Great.
The Boolak officials had journeyed to Thebes, expecting at most to find a
few mummies of petty princes; but on a sudden they were brought, as it
were, face to face with the mightiest kings of ancient Egypt, and
confronted the remains of heroes whose exploits and fame filled the
ancient world with awe more than three thousand years ago.
The explorers stood bewildered, and could scarcely believe the testimony
of their own eyes, and actually inquired of each other if they were not in
a dream. At the end of a passage, one hundred and thirty feet from the
bottom of the rock-cut passage, they stood at the entrance of a sepulchral
chamber, twenty-three feet long, and thirteen feet wide, literally piled
to the roof with mummy cases of enormous size. The coffins were brilliant
with colour-gilding and varnish, and looked as fresh as if they had
recently come out of the workshops of the Memnonium.
Among the mummies of this mortuary chapel were found two kings, four
queens, a prince and a princess, besides royal and priestly personages of
both sexes, all descendants of Her-Hor, the founder of the line of
priest-kings known as the XXIst dynasty. The chamber was manifestly the
family vault of the Her-Hor family; while the mummies of their more
illustrious predecessors of the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties, found in the
approaches to the chamber, had evidently been brought there for the sake
of safety. Each member of the family was buried with the usual mortuary
outfit. One queen, named Isi-em-Kheb (Isis of Lower Egypt), was also
provided with a sumptuous funereal repast, as well as a rich sepulchral
toilet, consisting of ointment bottles, alabaster cups, goblets of
exquisite variegated glass, and a large assortment of full dress wigs,
curled and frizzed. As the funereal repast was designed for refreshment,
so the sepulchral toilet was designed for the queen's use and adornment on
the Resurrection morn, when the vivified dead, clothed, fed, anointed and
perfumed, should leave the dark sepulchral chamber and go forth to the
mansions of everlasting day.
When the temporary excitement of the explorers had somewhat abated, they
felt that no time was to be lost in securing their newly discovered
treasures. Accordingly, three hundred Arabs were engaged from the
neighbouring villages; and working as they did with unabated vigour,
without sleep and without rest, they succeeded in clearing out the
sepulchral chamber and the long passages of their valuable contents in the
short space of forty-eight hours. All the mummies were then carefully
packed in sail-cloth and matting, and carried across the plain of Thebes
to the edge of the river. Thence they were rowed across the Nile to Luxor,
there to lie in readiness for embarkation on the approach of the Nile
steamers.
Some of the sarcophagi are of huge dimensions, the largest being that of
Nofretari, a queen of the XVIIIth dynasty. The coffin is ten feet long,
made of cartonnage, and in style resembles one of the Osiride pillars of
the Temple of Medinat Aboo. Its weight and size are so enormous that
sixteen men were required to remove it. In spite of all difficulties,
however, only five days elapsed from the time the Boolak officials were
lowered down the shaft until the precious relics lay ready for embarkation
at Luxor.
The Nile steamers did not arrive for three days, and during that time
Messrs. Brugsch and Kemal, and a few trustworthy Arabs, kept constant
guard over their treasure amid a hostile fanatical people who regarded
tomb-breaking as the legitimate trade of the neighbourhood. On the fourth
morning the steamers arrived, and having received on board the royal
mummies, steamed down the stream _en route_ for the Boolak Museum.
Meanwhile the news of the discovery had spread far and wide, and for fifty
miles below Luxor, the villagers lined the river banks, not merely to
catch a glimpse of the mummies on deck as the steamers passed by, but also
to show respect for the mighty dead. Women with dishevelled hair ran along
the banks shrieking the death-wail; while men stood in solemn silence, and
fired guns into the air to greet the mighty Pharaohs as they passed. Thus,
to the mummified bodies of Thothmes the Great, and Rameses the Great, and
their illustrious compeers, the funeral honours paid to them three
thousand years ago were, in a measure, repeated as the mortal remains of
these ancient heroes sailed down the Nile on their way to Boolak.
The principal personages found either as mummies, or represented by their
mummy cases, include a king and queen of the XVIIth dynasty, five kings
and four queens of the XVIIIth dynasty, and three successive kings of the
XIXth dynasty, namely, Rameses the Great, his father, and his grandfather.
The XXth dynasty, strange to say, is not represented; but belonging to the
XXIst dynasty of royal priests are four queens, two kings, a prince, and a
princess.
These royal mummies belong to four dynasties, and between the earliest and
the latest there intervenes a period of above seven centuries,--a space of
time as long as that which divides the Norman Conquest from the accession
of George III. Under the dynasties above mentioned ancient Egypt reached
the summit of her fame, through the expulsion of the Hykshos invaders, and
the extensive conquests of Thothmes III. and Rameses the Great. The
oppression of Israel in Egypt and the Exodus of the Hebrews, the colossal
temples of Thebes, the royal sepulchres of the Valley of the Tombs of the
Kings, the greater part of the Pharaonic obelisks, and the rock-cut
temples of the Nile Valley, belong to the same period.
It would be beyond the scope of this brief account to describe each royal
personage, and therefore there can only be given a short description of
the two kings connected with the London Obelisk, namely, Thothmes III. and
Rameses the Great, the mightiest of the Pharaohs.
Standing near the end of the long dark passage running northward, and not
far from the threshold of the family vault of the priest-kings, lay the
sarcophagus of Thothmes III., close to that of his brother Thothmes II.
The mummy case was in a lamentable condition, and had evidently been
broken into and subjected to rough usage. On the lid, however, were
recognized the well-known cartouches of this illustrious monarch. On
opening the coffin, the mummy itself was exposed to view, completely
enshrouded with bandages; but a rent near the left breast showed that it
had been exposed to the violence of tomb-breakers. Placed inside the
coffin and surrounding the body were found wreaths of flowers: larkspurs,
acacias and lotuses. They looked as if but recently dried, and even their
colours could be discerned.
Long hieroglyphic texts found written on the bandages contained the
seventeenth chapter of the "Ritual of the Dead," and the "Litanies of the
Sun."
The body measured only five feet two inches; so that, making due allowance
for shrinking and compression in the process of embalming, still it is
manifest that Thothmes III. was not a man of commanding stature; but in
shortness of stature as in brilliancy of conquests, finds his counterpart
in the person of Napoleon the Great.
It was desirable in the interests of science to ascertain whether the
mummy bearing the monogram of Thothmes III. was really the remains of that
monarch. It was therefore unrolled. The inscriptions on the bandages
established beyond all doubt the fact that it was indeed the most
distinguished of the kings of the brilliant XVIIIth dynasty; and once
more, after an interval of thirty-six centuries, human eyes gazed on the
features of the man who had conquered Syria, and Cyprus, and Ethiopia, and
had raised Egypt to the highest pinnacle of her power; so that it was said
that in his reign she placed her frontiers where she pleased. The
spectacle was of brief duration; the remains proved to be in so fragile a
state that there was only time to take a hasty photograph, and then the
features crumbled to pieces and vanished like an apparition, and so passed
away from human view for ever. The director felt such remorse at the
result that he refused to allow the unrolling of Rameses the Great, for
fear of a similar catastrophe.
Thothmes III. was the man who overran Palestine with his armies two
hundred years before the birth of Moses, and has left us a diary of his
adventures; for, like Cæsar, he was author as well as soldier. It seems
strange that though the body mouldered to dust, the flowers with which it
had been wreathed were so wonderfully preserved, that even their colour
could be distinguished; yet a flower is the very type of ephemeral beauty,
that passeth away and is gone almost as soon as born. A wasp which had
been attracted by the floral treasures, and had entered the coffin at the
moment of closing, was found dried up, but still perfect, having lasted
better than the king whose emblem of sovereignty it had once been; now it
was there to mock the embalmer's skill, and to add point to the sermon on
the vanity of human pride and power preached to us by the contents of that
coffin. Inexorable is the decree, "Unto dust thou shalt return."
Following the same line of meditation, it is difficult to avoid a thought
of the futility of human devices to achieve immortality. These Egyptian
monarchs, the veriest type of earthly grandeur and pride, whose rule was
almost limitless, whose magnificent tombs seem built to outlast the hills,
could find no better method of ensuring that their names should be had in
remembrance than the embalmment of their frail bodies. These remain, but
in what a condition, and how degraded are the uses to which they are put.
The spoil of an ignorant and thieving population, the pet curiosity of
some wealthy tourist, who buys a royal mummy as he would buy the Sphinx,
if it were moveable; "to what base uses art thou come," O body, so
tenderly nurtured, so carefully preserved!
Rameses II. died about thirteen centuries before the Christian era. It is
certain that this illustrious monarch was originally buried in the stately
tomb of the magnificent subterranean sepulchre by royal order hewn out of
the limestone cliffs in the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings. In the same
valley his grandfather and father were laid to rest; so that these three
mighty kings "all lay in glory, each in his own house." This burial-place
of the Pharaohs of the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties is in a deep gorge
behind the western hills of the Theban plain. "The valley is the very
ideal of desolation. Bare rocks, without a particle of vegetation,
overhanging and enclosing in a still narrower and narrower embrace a
valley as rocky and bare as themselves--no human habitation visible--the
stir of the city wholly excluded. Such is, such always must have been, the
awful aspect of the resting-place of the Theban kings. The sepulchres of
this valley are of extraordinary grandeur. You enter a sculptured portal
in the face of these wild cliffs, and find yourself in a long and lofty
gallery, opening or narrowing, as the case may be, into successive halls
and chambers, all of which are covered with white stucco, and this white
stucco, brilliant with colours, fresh as they were thousands of years ago.
The sepulchres are in fact gorgeous palaces, hewn out of the rock, and
painted with all the decorations that could have been seen in palaces."
One of the most gorgeous of these sepulchral palaces was that prepared in
this valley by Rameses II., and after the burial of the king the portals
were walled up, and the mummified body laid to rest in the vaulted hall
till the morn of the Resurrection. From a hieratic inscription found on
the mummy-case of Rameses, it appears that official Inspectors of Tombs
visited this royal tomb in the sixth year of Her-Hor, the founder of the
priestly line of kings; so that for at least two centuries the mummy of
Rameses the Great lay undisturbed in the original tomb prepared for its
reception. From several papyri still extant, it appears that the
neighbourhood of Thebes at this period, and for many years previously, was
in a state of social insecurity. Lawlessness, rapine and tomb-breaking,
filled the whole district with alarm. The "Abbott Papyrus" states that
royal sepulchres were broken open, cleared of mummies, jewels, and all
their contents. In the "Amherst Papyrus," a lawless tomb-breaker, in
relating how he broke into a royal sepulchre, makes the following
confession:--"The tomb was surrounded by masonry, and covered in by
roofing-stones. We demolished it, and found the king and queen reposing
therein. We found the august king with his divine axe beside him, and his
amulets and ornaments of gold about his neck. His head was covered with
gold, and his august person was entirely covered with gold. His coffins
were overlaid with gold and silver, within and without, and incrusted with
all kinds of precious stones. We took the gold which we found upon the
sacred person of this god, as also his amulets, and the ornaments which
were about his neck and the coffins in which he reposed. And having
likewise found his royal wife, we took all that we found upon her in the
same manner; and we set fire to their mummy cases, and we seized upon
their furniture, their vases of gold, silver, and bronze, and we divided
them amongst ourselves."
Such being the dreadful state of insecurity during the latter period of
the XXth dynasty, and throughout the whole of the Her-Hor dynasty, we are
not surprised to find that the mummy of Rameses II., and that of his
grandfather, Rameses I., were removed for the sake of greater security
from their own separate catacombs into the tomb of his father Seti I. In
the sixteenth year of Her-Hor, that is, ten years after the official
inspection mentioned above, a commission of priests visited the three
royal mummies in the tomb of Seti. On an entry found on the mummy case of
Seti and Rameses II., the priests certify that the bodies are in an
uninjured condition; but they deemed it expedient, on grounds of safety,
to transfer the three mummies to the tomb of Ansera, a queen of the XVIIth
dynasty. For ten years at least Rameses' body reposed in this abode; but
in the tenth year of Pinotem was removed into "the eternal house of
Amen-hotep." A fourth inscription on the breast bandages of Rameses
relates how that after resting for six years the body was again carried
back to the tomb of his father in "the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings,"
a valley now called "Bab-el-Molook."
How long the body remained in this resting-place, and how many transfers
it was subsequently subjected to, there exists no evidence to show; but
after being exposed to many vicissitudes, the mummy of Rameses, together
with those of his royal relatives, and many of his illustrious
predecessors, was brought in as a refugee into the family vault of the
Her-Hor dynasty. In this subterranean hiding-place, buried deep in the
heart of the Theban Hills, Rameses the Great, surrounded by a goodly
company of thirty royal mummies, lay undisturbed and unseen by mortal eye
for three thousand years, until, a few years ago, the lawless
tomb-breakers of Thebes burrowed into this sepulchral chamber.
The mummy-case containing Rameses' mummy is not the original one, for it
belongs to the style of the XXIst dynasty, and was probably made at the
time of the official inspection of his tomb in the sixth year of Her-Hor's
reign. It is made of unpainted sycamore wood, and the lid is of the shape
known as Osirian, that is, the deceased is represented in the well-known
attitude of Osiris, with arms crossed, and hands grasping a crook and
flail. The eyes are inserted in enamel, while the eyebrows, eyelashes, and
beard are painted black. Upon the breast are the familiar cartouches of
Rameses II., namely, _Ra-user-Ma-sotep-en-Ra_, his prenomen; and
_Ra-me-su-Meri-amen_, his nomen.
The mummy itself is in good condition, and measures six feet; but as in
the process of mummification the larger bones were probably drawn closer
together in their sockets, it seems self-evident that Rameses was a man of
commanding appearance. It is thus satisfactory to learn that the mighty
Sesostris was a hero of great physical stature, that this conqueror of
Palestine was in height equal to a grenadier.
The outer shrouds of the body are made of rose-coloured linen, and bound
together by very strong bands. Within the outer shrouds, the mummy is
swathed in its original bandages; and Professor Maspero has expressed his
intention of removing these inner bandages on some convenient opportunity,
in the presence of scholars and medical witnesses.
It has been urged that since Rameses XII., of the XXth dynasty, had a
prenomen similar though not identical with the divine cartouche of Rameses
II., the mummy in question may be that of Rameses XII. We have, however,
shown that the mummies of Rameses I., Seti I., and Rameses II., were
exposed to the same vicissitudes, buried, transferred, and reburied again
and again in the same vaults. When, therefore, we find in the sepulchre at
Deir-el-Bahari, in juxta-position, the mummy-case of Rameses I., the
mummy-case and acknowledged mummy of Seti I., and on the mummy-case and
shroud the well-known cartouches of Rameses II., the three standing in the
relation of grandfather, father, and son, it seems that the evidence is
overwhelming in favour of the mummy in question being that of Rameses the
Great.
All the royal mummies, twenty-nine in number, are now lying in state in
the Boolak Museum. Arranged together side by side and shoulder to
shoulder, they form a solemn assembly of kings, queens, royal priests,
princes, princesses, and nobles of the people. Among the group are the
mummied remains of the greatest royal builders, the most renowned
warriors, and mightiest monarchs of ancient Egypt. They speak to us of the
military glory and architectural splendour of that marvellous country
thirty-five centuries ago; they illustrate the truth of the words of the
Christian Apostle: "All flesh is as grass, and all the glory of man as the
flower of grass. The grass withereth, and the flower thereof falleth away:
but the word of the Lord endureth for ever. And this is the word which by
the Gospel is preached unto you."[9]
These great Egyptian rulers, in all their magnificence and power, had no
Gospel in their day, and can preach no Gospel to those who gaze
wonderingly upon their remains, so strangely brought to light. Much as we
should like to hear the tale they could unfold of a civilization of which
we seem to know so much, and yet in reality know so little, on all these
questions they are for ever silent. But they utter a weighty message to
all whose temptation now is to lose sight of the future in the present, of
the eternal by reason of the temporal. They show how fleeting and
unsubstantial are even the highest earthly rank and wealth and influence;
and how true is the lesson taught by him who knew all that Egypt could
teach, and much that God could reveal, and whose life is interpreted for
us by the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews: "By faith Moses, when he
was come to years, refused to be called the son of Pharaoh's daughter;
choosing rather to suffer affliction with the people of God, than to enjoy
the pleasures of sin for a season; esteeming the reproach of Christ
greater riches than the treasures in Egypt: for he had respect unto the
recompence of the reward."[10]
[Illustration]
Harrison and Sons, Printers in Ordinary to Her Majesty, St. Martin's Lane,
London.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Prov. iv. 18.
[2] Eph. ii. 13.
[3] Acts xvii. 30, 31.
[4] Rawlinson's "History of Ancient Egypt," Vol. II., pp. 240-243.
[5] Rawlinson's "History of Ancient Egypt," Vol. II., p. 253.
[6] Brugsch, "History of Egypt," Vol. II., p. 57, 1st ed.
[7] Rawlinson's "Ancient Egypt," Vol. II., p. 318.
[8] "History of Architecture," Vol. I., p. 113.
[9] 1 Peter i. 24, 25.
[10] Heb. xi. 24-26.
BY-PATHS OF BIBLE KNOWLEDGE.
Under this general title THE RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY purposes publishing a
Series of Books on subjects of interest connected with the Bible, not
adequately dealt with in the ordinary Handbooks.
The writers will, in all cases, be those who have special acquaintance
with the subjects they take up, and who enjoy special facilities for
acquiring the latest and most accurate information.
Each Volume will be complete in itself, and, if possible, the price will
be kept uniformly at _half-a-crown_.
The Series is designed for general readers, who wish to get in a compact
and interesting form the fresh knowledge that has been brought to light
during the last few years in so many departments of Biblical study.
Intelligent young readers of both sexes, Sunday-school teachers, and all
Bible students will, it is hoped, find these Volumes both attractive and
useful.
The order of publication will probably be as follows, the titles in some
cases being provisional:
=I. CLEOPATRA'S NEEDLE.= A History of the Obelisk on the Embankment, a
Translation and Exposition of the Hieroglyphics, and a Sketch of the two
kings, whose deeds it commemorates. By Rev. JAMES KING, M.A., Authorized
Lecturer to the Palestine Exploration Fund. (_Now ready._)
=II. ASSYRIAN LIFE AND HISTORY.= By M. E. HARKNESS, with an Introduction
by REGINALD STUART POOLE, of the British Museum. (_In October._)
=III. A SKETCH of the most striking Confirmations of the Bible, shown in
the recent Discoveries and Translations of Monuments in Egypt, Babylonia,
Assyria, etc.= By the Rev. A. H. SAYCE, M.A., Fellow of Queen's College,
and Deputy Professor of Comparative Philology in the University of Oxford,
Member of the Old Testament Revision Committee. (_In November or
December._)
=IV. BABYLONIAN LIFE AND HISTORY, as Illustrated by the Monuments.= By MR.
BUDGE, of the British Museum.
=V. THE RECENT SURVEY OF PALESTINE, and the most striking Results of it.=
=VI. EGYPT--HISTORY, ART, and CUSTOMS, as Illustrated by the Monuments in
the British Museum.=
=VII. UNDERGROUND JERUSALEM.=
_N.B.--Other Subjects are in course of preparation, and will be
announced in due course._
LONDON: THE RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY,
56. PATERNOSTER ROW.
Transcriber's Notes:
Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.
Passages in bold are indicated by =bold=.
The original text includes Greek characters. For this text version these
letters have been replaced with transliterations.
Letters with diacritical marks are not represented in this text version.