INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS IN SPAIN, 1252-1479
_Castile_
[Sidenote: Beginning of Castilian intellectual superiority in the
peninsula.]
[Sidenote: General characteristics of the era.]
With the advance of the Christian conquest against the Moslems the
political centre had passed from the northern coast to the Castilian
table-land, and thence to Andalusia, where for a time the court was set
up in Seville. There was a tendency, however, to return to Castile
proper, since the people of that region were the principal element in
the conquest and in internal political affairs. The political
preponderance of the Castilian part of the realm was so clearly
established that it transformed that region in many ways, and caused it
to have for the first time a civilization superior to that of the
coastal plains, overcoming the geographical handicaps which hitherto had
held it back. The predominance of Castile in intellectual life was to
become yet more marked in later centuries. In earlier times the rude
Asturians and Galicians had joined with the no less rude Leonese and
Castilians against the Moslems, but they had become modified by contact
with the conquered people themselves and with the various foreigners who
joined them in the conquest. The indigenous people did not lose their
own individuality, however; rather they assimilated the new influences,
and paved the way for the brilliant and original manifestation of
intellectual culture of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The
principal characteristic of this epoch was the desire for knowledge,
leading to the incorporation into indigenous civilization of many other
elements. The conquest of Andalusia brought Castile into more intimate
contact with Moslem civilization, which reached its culminating point
in science and in art in the fourteenth century. French elements
continued to affect polite literature and didactic works. Especially
noteworthy was the great prominence of the influences coming out of
Italy, giving a new direction to Castilian literature, and substituting
for the Moslem scientific element the direct study of classical texts
and the use of observation and experiment as a means to knowledge. The
entry of western European culture into Castile was accelerated by those
Castilians who went to France and Italy at this time to study in the
great schools and universities of those lands. The two capital moments
of the era were the reigns of Alfonso X and Juan II.
[Sidenote: University and other education.]
The universities increased in number and influence to the point of being
a vital factor in the intellectual life of the period. In the
_Partidas_, Alfonso X distinguished between the “general studies”
founded by the pope, emperor, or king, and the “particular studies,” the
creation of an individual or town. The former combined secondary and
higher education, for the old _trivium_ and _quadrivium_ were retained,
with the addition of the Roman and canon law.[48] Gradually the higher
studies began to predominate, and associated themselves with the term
“university.” The “particular studies” were usually conducted by a
single master with a few students, and were confined to some one or two
branches of learning. Some of these subjects, when they differed from
the fundamental courses of the “general studies,” tended to be adopted
by the latter. Thus theology was added to the university curriculum in
the fifteenth century. Other subjects were also studied in the
universities, even though not common to all, such as medicine and
surgery at Salamanca. Primary education was neglected, although the
church schools still continued and some towns or individuals founded
such schools. The universities received considerable government aid, but
were autonomous, and depended in part on other sources of income, such
as their own fees and the gifts by individuals or corporations other
than the state. The students and teachers together formed a _cofradía_,
or fraternity, which elected its own rector, or president. A bishop,
dean, or abbot was usually constituted a kind of guardian by royal
mandate. This official was gradually replaced by the “schoolmaster of
the cathedral,” who came to be judge in cases affecting university
students, and even arrogated to himself the right to confer degrees,
rivalling the president of the university in authority. All members of
the university were granted special legal privileges (approximately
those of the clergy) with respect to their persons and goods. The method
of teaching employed was the reading of a text by the teacher, who
commented upon and explained it. Examinations were held for the granting
of the bachelor’s and doctor’s degrees. Not only did each university
possess a library, but there were also many other public and private
libraries, and the trade of the copyist and the manufacture of books
were markedly more prominent than before. In the universities texts were
loaned (not sold) to students to enable them to correct their
notes,--which shows that books were still comparatively scarce. Some
time before 1475, at an uncertain date, the art of printing was
introduced into Castile,--with effects which belong to the following
eras.
[Sidenote: Moslem, Jewish, and other influences on Castilian thought and
science.]
The oriental influence on Castilian thought and science, or rather the
classical influences transmitted through Moslem and Jewish writers,
advanced for a time, and continued to be preponderant until the
fifteenth century, when European ideas, principally Italian, became the
more important. There was a change in direction of the Moslem influence,
however. Philosophy dropped back from the leading place, and was
substituted by juridical and moral studies, while the physical and
natural sciences, including their superstitious derivations, acquired a
remarkable vogue. Christian writers imitated Moslem philosophers and
moralists, or translated their works; many Castilian writers were of
Moslem or Jewish origin, or still continued to belong to those peoples
and faiths; many Arabic works were included in the libraries of the
time; and the oriental form of scientific exposition, the encyclopedia,
was frequently used. The oriental influence manifested itself especially
in the natural sciences. Books of mathematics, physics, chemistry,
medicine, and astronomy were almost the only ones to be translated from
the Arabic, and these branches were also the ones to which Mudéjar
scholars of the period most frequently devoted themselves. Moslems and
Jews continued to be the most famous physicians of Castile. The
deductive method and dialectic forms were still employed by them, rather
than personal observation and experiment. The most marked characteristic
of the cultivation of the natural sciences was in their extravagant
applications with a view to a knowledge of the future or to obtain vast
wealth through supernatural agencies. Thus chemistry tended toward
alchemy, with the aim of finding the philosopher’s stone, whereby base
metals might be turned into gold, or with the object of producing
mysterious elixirs endowed with wonder-working virtues. Chemists and
alchemists came to be considered as practicers of magic arts in more or
less intimate communion with the Devil, a belief in which the
individuals themselves often shared. Men of high attainments were
credulous exponents of these superstitions,--for example, Archbishop
Alonso de Carrillo and the learned Enrique de Villena; the latter
attained to a legendary fame which has endured even to the present day.
Similarly, astronomers were at the same time astrologers. Both alchemy
and astrology served a useful purpose, however, in stimulating the study
of the true sciences, with a resulting advance in knowledge. The age of
the Moslem and Jewish philosopher was past, and very little that was
original in the realm of philosophy appeared in Castile in this period;
even theological writings were not prominent, despite the study of
theology in the universities and schools. Moral and political literature
abounded, such as discussions of the wiles or virtues of women on the
one hand, and works on the relations between church and state on the
other. In the latter respect ecclesiastical writers maintained the
superior authority of the pope over the king, but were in the main
defenders of monarchy, although distinguishing the legitimate king from
the tyrant, and sustaining the ultimate dependence of the monarch on
his people. The Italian influence appeared in philosophy through
translations of classical (Aristotle, Plato, Cicero, Seneca) and
contemporary Italian (Colonna, Petrarch, Boccaccio) texts. The most
influential manifestation of Castilian thought was in the field of
jurisprudence, to which references have already been made in dealing
with the _Partidas_ and other legal volumes. The entire period abounded
in this type of literature, not only in compilations of an official
character, but also in those of private individuals, all of them greatly
influenced by the legal works of Justinian.
[Sidenote: The triumph of Castilian in polite literature.]
[Sidenote: External influences upon Castilian literature.]
The same factors which affected the literary history of the preceding
period continued to exist in this, although occupying different
positions, and in addition competing with the Classical Renaissance and
Italian elements, which almost overwhelmed the others. Just as in the
scientific works, so in literature, these factors were assimilated and
made over to produce the original Castilian product of succeeding
centuries. Castilian became the language of poetry and of didactic
works, routing its Galician and Latin rivals. Latin works were
translated to Castilian, and from the middle of the thirteenth century
the latter began to be used instead of the former in public documents.
Galician-Portuguese lyric poetry, half erudite, half popular, born of
the Provençal, which it had assimilated and transformed, advanced to its
highest point, and seemed to have won a victory over Castilian. About
the middle of the fourteenth century it commenced to decline, and by the
end of that century Castilian lyric poetry was already predominant; in
the fifteenth century Galician ceased to be a literary language, and
even Portuguese writers frequently used Castilian. Besides satire and
even more sensuality than its Provençal prototype the Galician
literature often included ethical and religious sentiments in the same
poem. The Provençal influences proper also affected Castile, but did not
take root as in Catalonia, because of the difference in language. When
Galician poetry lost its place it was the Castilian which became its
successor, manifesting in one of its forms the same curious mixture of
ethics and satire. At length a satirical element of a free and sensual
type prevailed, and brought about a degeneration of this kind of
literature. With the fourteenth century the powerful Classical and
Italian Renaissance influences made themselves felt in Castile both in
poetry and in prose. Works of the classical poets (Homer, Virgil, Ovid,
Lucan) and writers of prose (Livy, Sallust, Cæsar, Plutarch, and others)
were translated, and served to enrich Castilian literature both in form
and in content. The Italian influence proper (Dante, Petrarch,
Boccaccio) was by far the greatest, however, especially that of Dante,
which vanquished the former French influence in poetry, and in part the
Galician, and banished the earlier Castilian literary forms. The Italian
influence was most deeply felt in its effects on lyric poetry. Epic
poetry and prose were not altogether uncultivated, however, and in this
field French influence continued to exist. Many of the older unwritten
poems were reduced to writing, and French poems of chivalry and French
novels of adventure, telling of the fantastic deeds of King Arthur,
Charlemagne, the magician Merlin, and others, were repeated or
reconstructed in Castilian. The fabulous element became predominant,
leading to the books of _caballería_, or chivalry, based on the
extraordinary adventures of wandering knights (_caballeros andantes_),
full of the extravagant exaggeration of unbridled imagination. The first
great work of this sort in the peninsula, and the best of its kind, was
a novel by Vasco de Lobeira called _Amadés de Gaula_, written originally
in Portuguese, but already known in Castile in the later fourteenth
century. In the fifteenth century amatory novels began to appear.
[Sidenote: Historical literature.]
[Sidenote: The drama.]
The advance of the preceding period in historical literature was
continued in this. One of the principal names was that of Alfonso X, who
was also a writer of note in other branches of literature and learning.
His principal work was a history of Spain, compiled probably by a number
of men under his direction, just as the _Partidas_ was. Various sources
were employed, Spanish, French, Latin, and Arabic, and a certain spirit
of criticism, superior to that of the earlier histories, was displayed.
On the other hand the work was defective from the historiographical
standpoint because of its lack of proportion, its inclusion of epic
poems in the body of the narrative, and its manifestation of an ardent
patriotism. Perhaps the best historian of the era was the many-sided
chancellor and litterateur, López de Ayala, author among other
historical works of a chronicle of the reigns of Pedro I, Henry II, Juan
I, and part of that of Henry III. López de Ayala wrote in direct
imitation of classical writers, especially Livy. Pérez de Guzmán, as
author of a collection of biographies reaching down to the fifteenth
century, made use of a psychological interpretation of human events.
Dramatic literature did not change from the religious dramas and popular
representations of jugglers of the preceding era, but progress was made
in both of these forms, and each attained to greater favor, preparing
the way for the rapidly approaching inauguration of the national
theatre.
[Sidenote: The developed Castilian Gothic architecture.]
[Sidenote: Mudéjar architecture.]
Gothic architecture had its most brilliant expression in the early part
of this period, degenerating later largely through an exaggeration of
its elements. At the end of the thirteenth century Castilian Gothic may
be said to have differed from that of the other European countries in
the following respects: its maintenance of classical proportions, with
scant difference between the length and width of an edifice, reducing
the height; less development in the use of windows; greater robustness
of walls, columns, and piers, diminishing the importance of buttresses;
more nearly flat roofs; and the general use and ample size of cloisters
in convents and churches. The structural basis and sober character of
early Gothic began to be lost sight of in the fourteenth century, and,
in particular, ornamentation was used without any relation to structural
needs. The corruption of Gothic became more and more marked in the
fifteenth century, when proportions and structural ideals were
forgotten, and adornment, notably in the use of pinnacles, was employed
in excessive degree. It was at this time that the choir of Spanish
cathedrals was moved to the centre of the nave, in front of the high
altar. This was the greatest age of Gothic civil and military art,
especially of the latter. Castles were more solidly and more richly
built, with handsome towers and other exterior defences and with
embattled walls. Towers and battlements also appeared on the walls of
cities. Mudéjar architecture continued to develop, notably in Toledo and
Seville, in both religious and civil edifices, and some of the best
specimens of this art date from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
It was especially employed in the interior decoration of palaces and
private houses,--in panelling, handsomely worked wooden roofs, painted
and sculptured friezes, and the use of tiles. On the outside it appeared
in eaves and beams of brightly colored woods.
[Sidenote: The lesser arts.]
Sculpture remained, as before, an adjunct of architecture, but was
employed more than formerly in the ornamentation of buildings. In form
it became more and more affected by Italian influences. The comparative
wealth and luxury of the era, as well as the needs of religion, led to
an advance in metal work and the making of jewelry and rich
embroideries. The illumination of manuscripts reached a higher level
than before, but declined before the end of the period, partly because
of the invention of printing. The painting of windows in cathedrals
attained to a greater richness and variety in scene, and wall painting
acquired an independent position. The Italian influence of Giotto was
apparent in the fifteenth century, although it did not get beyond the
point of mere copying. The Flemish influence was more important, dating
from Van Eyck’s visit to Spain in 1428, after which date paintings in
the Flemish style abounded in Castile, especially altar-pieces. Music
turned upon singing, usually of one part, although occasionally other
parts were sung. Musical instruments were employed solely for
accompaniments of songs and dances.
_Aragon_
[Sidenote: General characteristics of intellectual culture in the
kingdom of Aragon.]
In intellectual culture Aragon proper, Catalonia, Valencia, and Majorca
may be considered together. The same general line of progress was in
evidence as that already described for Castile. There was the same
eagerness for learning among the upper classes, the same development of
educational institutions, an analogous penetration of foreign influences
(especially French and Italian), and an identical practice of going to
other parts of Europe to study. The landmarks in intellectual history
were the reign of Pedro IV in didactic literature, that of Juan I for
the Provençal troubadour literature, and that of Alfonso V for the
Classical Renaissance.
[Sidenote: Education and printing.]
The most noteworthy university founded in the period was that of
Barcelona, which evolved from an academy in the opening years of the
fourteenth century to the rank of a university in 1450, with courses in
theology, civil and canon law, philosophy, arts, and medicine. In
addition to numerous other schools similar to those of Castile there
were two more or less distinct types here: the primary school, much more
frequently met with than in other parts of the peninsula; and the Lulian
schools (due originally to the initiative of Raymond Lull, but carried
on throughout the era), which devoted themselves primarily to
philosophy, but also to foreign languages, especially Arabic. Naturally
the invention of printing at the end of the period gave a fresh impulse
to intellectual culture. The first book to be printed in this region was
published in Valencia in 1474. In 1478, or a little before, books began
to be printed in Barcelona.
[Sidenote: Leading currents in thought and science.]
Philosophy, medicine, nautical science, cartography, and cosmography
were the studies most cultivated. The influence of Raymond Lull
continued to be felt, both in the imitations and translations of Hebrew
and Arabic philosophers, especially Averröes, and in the reaction
against them. In the fifteenth century the Italian, and to a less extent
the French, influences began to be felt. The Neapolitan court of Alfonso
V was the great centre for the penetration of Italian and classical
thought. Theologians proper contributed little in this period, but there
were numerous writings on ecclesiastical subjects,--works of a
controversial or moral nature, translations, and histories of saints,
mystics, ascetics, and sacred orators. The extraordinary development of
the study of medicine was due primarily to Jewish and Moslem elements.
Toward the end of the fifteenth century a marked current of opinion
against the deductive method in medicine and in favor of experimental
studies became apparent. Chemistry, the companion study of medicine, was
much in favor, as also was alchemy, which counted King Juan I and Miguel
Jiménez de Urrea, bishop of Tarazona, among its devotees. The Catalans
and Majorcans were famous for their knowledge of cartography and the
related sciences. To the Catalans were due the first map of the Danish
peninsula and the correction of the maps of the Norwegian and Swedish
coasts and the lands touching the Baltic Sea. Jaime Ferrer, a Marrano of
Majorca, was the leading nautical and geographical scholar of those whom
Prince Henry attracted to Portugal to prepare the Portuguese for their
rôle in the history of maritime exploration. In addition to the kindred
sciences of mathematics and astronomy the pseudo-science of astrology
was also much pursued. Just as in Castile, so in Aragon, juridical
studies in both the civil and canon law had a great vogue.
[Sidenote: Struggle of the Catalan, Latin, and Castilian languages for
predominance in polite literature.]
At the close of the preceding era Catalan was already being employed in
prose works in Catalonia, while the Provençal predominated in poetry. In
this period the Catalan, which also found support in Valencia and
Majorca, invaded all types of literature. Against this current there
appeared two powerful forces which made themselves most felt in the last
century of the era,--Latin and Castilian. Latin was much more firmly
rooted in Catalonia than in Castile, and the Latin tradition was greatly
reinforced by contact with the Classical Renaissance influences
throughout the period, owing to the intimate political relations of the
kings with Sicily and Naples. These influences were at their height in
the reign of Alfonso V. Castilian had the support of Aragon proper,
since the Aragonese tongue was very similar to that of Castile, and it
was furthered by the Castilian dynasty of Ferdinand I, which began to
rule in Aragon in 1410. The same element appeared at the court of
Alfonso V, much frequented by Castilian and Aragonese poets, and even by
Catalans who chose to write in Castilian. As a result Catalan began to
decline as a literary language, although it did not disappear, but on
the contrary improved in its elements and forms. Catalan poetry of the
era never completely effaced the Provençal influence, as evidenced by
the subject-matter, which was predominantly amatory, although somewhat
erudite, artificial, conventional, mystical, allegorical, satirical, and
even moral. Catalan prose appeared principally in novels of chivalry and
in history. Castilian poetry and prose also had interesting
manifestations in the entire realm of Aragon. The history of dramatic
literature followed the same course as in Castile, although in some of
the choral representations at the court of Alfonso V an approach to the
modern theatre was made.
[Sidenote: The fine arts.]
With respect to architecture, sculpture, and the related arts the
general remarks about their development in Castile may be applied to the
kingdom of Aragon, subject to the observation already made[49] as to the
difference of Catalan Gothic from that of Castile. The Italian
influences were exceptionally strong in Catalonia and Valencia, and the
French were marked in regions near the Pyrenees and in Majorca. One type
of edifice peculiar to the eastern coasts was the defensive tower to
which the inhabitants resorted on the appearance of pirates or in times
of military danger. In painting, the Italian style of Giotto was more
completely assimilated than in Castile. Flemish influences were equally
prevalent.
[Sidenote: Mutual influence of Aragonese and other European
civilizations.]
Despite the long occupation of the duchy of Athens by Catalan rulers,
who used Catalan speech and customs, the Catalan-Aragonese civilization
had no noteworthy effect in Greece, and, similarly, neither the
Byzantine nor the Athenian civilization reacted upon the kingdom of
Aragon. In southern France, however, the Catalan-Aragonese civilization
did produce effects, just as it was in turn affected. The same mutual
exchange of influences was also observable between Aragon and Italy, if
indeed the civilization of the latter was recognized as superior by the
Spanish conquerors themselves. The principal impulse came at the time of
Alfonso V and the contemporary papal reign of the Spanish pope, Alfonso
Borgia, as Calixtus III (1455-1458). There was a great influx of
Spaniards, especially from the realm of Aragon, and as they occupied
the highest official posts in southern Italy, they could not but make
their presence felt. Many Spaniards left Italy upon the deaths of
Alfonso V and Calixtus III, but others remained, and political relations
were maintained between the two kingdoms, since the Neapolitan ruling
family proceeded from the same trunk as that of Aragon, thus preparing a
new period of Spanish rule and influence with the reign of Ferdinand of
Aragon.