easily quelled. In 1113, however, a quarrel over the succession to the
counties of Weimar and Orlamunde gave occasion for a fresh outbreak on
the part of Lothair, whose troops were defeated at Warnstadt, after
which the duke was pardoned. Having been married at Mainz on the 7th of
January 1114 to Matilda, or Maud, daughter of Henry I., king of England,
the emperor was confronted with a further rising, initiated by the
citizens of Cologne, who were soon joined by the Saxons and others.
Henry failed to take Cologne, his forces were defeated at Welfesholz on
the 11th of February 1115, and complications in Italy compelled him to
leave Germany to the care of Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen, duke of
Swabia, and his brother Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III.
After the departure of Henry from Rome in 1111 a council had declared
the privilege of lay investiture, which had been extorted from Paschal,
to be invalid, and Guido, archbishop of Vienne, excommunicated the
emperor and called upon the pope to ratify this sentence. Paschal,
however, refused to take so extreme a step; and the quarrel entered upon
a new stage in 1115 when Matilda, daughter and heiress of Boniface,
margrave of Tuscany, died leaving her vast estates to the papacy.
Crossing the Alps in 1116 Henry won the support of town and noble by
privileges to the one and presents to the other, took possession of
Matilda's lands, and was gladly received in Rome. By this time Paschal
had withdrawn his consent to lay investiture and the excommunication had
been published in Rome; but the pope was compelled to fly from the city.
Some of the cardinals withstood the emperor, but by means of bribes he
broke down the opposition, and was crowned a second time by Burdinas,
archbishop of Braga. Meanwhile the defeat at Welfesholz had given heart
to Henry's enemies; many of his supporters, especially among the
bishops, fell away; the excommunication was published at Cologne, and
the pope, with the assistance of the Normans, began to make war. In
January 1118 Paschal died and was succeeded by Gelasius II. The emperor
immediately returned from northern Italy to Rome. But as the new pope
escaped from the city, Henry, despairing of making a treaty, secured the
election of an antipope who took the name of Gregory VIII., and who was
left in possession of Rome when the emperor returned across the Alps in
1118. The opposition in Germany was gradually crushed and a general
peace declared at Tribur, while the desire for a settlement of the
investiture dispute was growing. Negotiations, begun at Wurzburg, were
continued at Worms, where the new pope, Calixtus II., was represented by
Cardinal Lambert, bishop of Ostia. In the concordat of Worms, signed in
September 1122, Henry renounced the right of investiture with ring and
crozier, recognized the freedom of election of the clergy and promised
to restore all church property. The pope agreed to allow elections to
take place in presence of the imperial envoys, and the investiture with
the sceptre to be granted by the emperor as a symbol that the estates of
the church were held under the crown. Henry, who had been solemnly
excommunicated at Reims by Calixtus in October 1119, was received again
into the communion of the church, after he had abandoned his nominee,
Gregory, to defeat and banishment. The emperor's concluding years were
occupied with a campaign in Holland, and with a quarrel over the
succession to the margraviate of Meissen, two disputes in which his
enemies were aided by Lothair of Saxony. In 1124 he led an expedition
against King Louis VI. of France, turned his arms against the citizens
of Worms, and on the 23rd of May 1125 died at Utrecht and was buried at
Spires. Having no children, he left his possessions to his nephew,
Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, and on his death the line
of Franconian, or Salian, emperors became extinct.
The character of Henry is unattractive. His love of power was
inordinate; he was wanting in generosity, and he did not shrink from
treachery in pursuing his ends.
The chief authority for the life and reign of Henry V. is Ekkehard of
Aura, _Chronicon_, edited by G. Waitz in the _Monumenta Germaniae
historica. Scriptores_, Band vi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892), See
also W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band
iii. (Leipzig, 1881-1890); L. von Ranke, _Weltgeschichte_, pt. vii.
(Leipzig, 1886); M. Manitius, _Deutsche Geschichte_ (Stuttgart, 1889);
G. Meyer von Knonau, _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reiches unter Heinrich
IV. und Heinrich V._ (Leipzig, 1890); E. Gervais, _Politische
Geschichte Deutschlands unter der Regierung der Kaiser Heinrich V. und
Lothar III._ (Leipzig, 1841-1842); G. Peiser, _Der deutsche
Investiturstreit unter Kaiser Heinrich V._ (Berlin, 1883); C. Stutzer,
"Zur Kritik der Investiturverhandlungen im Jahre 1119," in the
_Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, Band xviii. (Gottingen,
1862-1886); T. von Sickel and H. Bresslau, "Die kaiserliche
Ausfertigung des Wormser Konkordats," in the _Mittheilungen des
Instituts fur osterreichische Geschichtsforschung_ (Innsbruck, 1880);
B. Gebhardt, _Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte_, Band i. (Berlin,
1901), and E. Bernheim, _Zur Geschichte des Wormser Konkordats_
(Gottingen, 1878).
HENRY VI. (1165-1197), Roman emperor, son of the emperor Frederick I.
and Beatrix, daughter of Renaud III., count of upper Burgundy, was born
at Nijmwegen, and educated under the care of Conrad of Querfurt,
afterwards bishop of Hildesheim and Wurzburg. Chosen German king, or
king of the Romans, at Bamberg in June 1169, he was crowned at
Aix-la-Chapelle on the 15th of August 1169, invested with lands in
Germany in 1179, and at Whitsuntide 1184 his knighthood was celebrated
in the most magnificent manner at Mainz. Frederick was anxious to
associate his son with himself in the government of the empire, and when
he left Germany in 1184 Henry remained behind as regent, while his
father sought to procure his coronation from Pope Lucius III. The pope
was hesitating when he heard that the emperor had arranged a marriage
between Henry and Constance, daughter of the late king of Sicily, Roger
I., and aunt and heiress of the reigning king, William II.; and this
step, which threatened to unite Sicily with Germany, decided him to
refuse the proposal. This marriage took place at Milan on the 27th of
January 1186, and soon afterwards Henry was crowned king of Italy. The
claim of Henry and his wife on Sicily was recognized by the barons of
that kingdom; and having been recognized by the pope as Roman emperor
elect, Henry returned to Germany, and was again appointed regent when
Frederick set out on crusade in May 1189. His attempts to bring peace to
Germany were interrupted by the return of Henry the Lion, duke of
Saxony, in October 1189, and a campaign against him was followed by a
peace made at Fulda in July 1190.
Henry's desire to make this peace was due to the death of William of
Sicily, which was soon followed by that of the emperor Frederick.
Germany and Italy alike seemed to need the king's presence, but for him,
like all the Hohenstaufen, Italy had the greater charm, and having
obtained a promise of his coronation from Pope Clement III. he crossed
the Alps in the winter of 1190. He purchased the support of the cities
of northern Italy, but on reaching Rome he found Clement was dead and
his successor, Celestine III., disinclined to carry out the engagement
of his predecessor. The strength of the German army and a treaty made
between the king and the Romans induced him, however, to crown Henry as
emperor on the 14th of April 1191. The aid of the Romans had been
purchased by the king's promise to place in their possession the city of
Tusculum, which they had attacked in vain for three years. After the
ceremony the emperor fulfilled this contract, when the city was
destroyed and many of the inhabitants massacred. Meanwhile a party in
Sicily had chosen Tancred, an illegitimate son of Roger, son of King
Roger II., as their king, and he had already won considerable authority
and was favoured by the pope. Leaving Rome Henry met with no resistance
until he reached Naples, which he was unable to take, as the ravages of
fever and threatening news from Germany, where his death was reported,
compelled him to raise the siege. In December 1191 he returned to
Germany. Disorder was general and a variety of reasons induced both the
Welfs and their earlier opponents to join in a general league against
the emperor. Vacancies in various bishoprics added to the confusion, and
Henry's enemies gained in numbers and strength when it was suspected
that he was implicated in the murder of Albert, bishop of Liege. Henry
acted energetically in fighting this formidable combination, but his
salvation came from the captivity of Richard I., king of England, and
the skill with which he used this event to make peace with his foes;
and, when Henry the Lion came to terms in March 1194, order was restored
to Germany.
In the following May, Henry made his second expedition to Italy, where
Pope Celestine had definitely espoused the cause of Tancred. The ransom
received from Richard enabled him to equip a large army, and aided by a
fleet fitted out by Genoa and Pisa he soon secured a complete mastery
over the Italian mainland. When he reached Sicily he found Tancred
dead, and, meeting with very little resistance, he entered Palermo,
where he was crowned king on Christmas day 1194. A stay of a few months'
duration enabled Henry to settle the affairs of the kingdom; and leaving
his wife, Constance, as regent, and appointing many Germans to positions
of influence, he returned to Germany in June 1195.
Having established his position in Germany and Italy, Henry began to
cherish ideas of universal empire. Richard of England had already owned
his supremacy, and declaring he would compel the king of France to do
the same Henry sought to stir up strife between France and England. Nor
did the Spanish kingdoms escape his notice. Tunis and Tripoli were
claimed, and when the eastern emperor, Isaac Angelus, asked his help, he
demanded in return the cession of the Balkan peninsula. The kings of
Cyprus and Armenia asked for investiture at his hands; and in general
Henry, in the words of a Byzantine chronicler, put forward his demands
as "the lord of all lords, the king of all kings." To complete this
scheme two steps were necessary, a reconciliation with the pope and the
recognition of his young son, Frederick, as his successor in the Empire.
The first was easily accomplished; the second was more difficult. After
attempting to suppress the renewed disorder in Germany, Henry met the
princes at Worms in December 1195 and put his proposal before them. In
spite of promises they disliked the suggestion as tending to draw them
into Sicilian troubles, and avoided the emperor's displeasure by
postponing their answer. By threats or negotiations, however, Henry won
the consent of about fifty princes; but though the diet which met at
Wurzburg in April 1196 agreed to the scheme, the vigorous opposition of
Adolph, archbishop of Cologne, and others rendered it inoperative. In
June 1196 Henry went again to Italy, sought vainly to restore order in
the north, and tried to persuade the pope to crown his son who had been
chosen king of the Romans at Frankfort. Celestine, who had many causes
of complaint against the emperor and his vassals, refused. The emperor
then went to the south, where the oppression of his German officials had
caused an insurrection, which was put down with terrible cruelty. At
Messina on the 28th of September 1197 Henry died from a cold caught
whilst hunting, and was buried at Palermo. He was a man of small frame
and delicate constitution, but possessed considerable mental gifts and
was skilled in knightly exercises. His ambition was immense, and to
attain his ends he often resorted deliberately to cruelty and treachery.
His chief recreation was hunting, and he also found pleasure in the
society of the Minnesingers and in writing poems, which appear in F. H.
von der Hagen's _Minnesinger_ (Leipzig, 1838). He left an only son
Frederick, afterwards the emperor Frederick II.
The chief authorities for the life and reign of Henry VI. are Otto of
Freising, _Chronicon_, continued by Otto of St Blasius; Godfrey of
Viterbo, _Gesta Friderici I._ and _Gesta Heinrici VI._; Giselbert of
Mons, _Chronicon Hanoniense_, all of which appear in the _Monumenta
Germaniae historica. Scriptores_, Bande xx., xxi., xxii. (Hanover and
Berlin, 1826-1892), and the various annals of the time.
The best modern authorities are: W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der
deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band iv. (Brunswick, 1877); T. Toeche, _Kaiser
Heinrich VI._ (Leipzig, 1867); H. Bloch, _Forschungen zur Politik
Kaiser Heinrichs VI._ (Berlin, 1892), and K. A. Kneller, _Des Richard
Lowenherz deutsche Gefangenschaft_ (Freiburg, 1893).
HENRY VII. (c. 1269-1313), Roman emperor, son of Henry III., count of
Luxemburg, was knighted by Philip IV., king of France, and passed his
early days under French influences, while the French language was his
mother-tongue. His father was killed in battle in 1288, and Henry ruled
his tiny inheritance with justice and prudence, but came into collision
with the citizens of Trier over a question of tolls. In 1292 he married
Margaret (d. 1311), daughter of John I., duke of Brabant, and after the
death of the German king, Albert I., he was elected to the vacant throne
on the 27th of November 1308. Recognized at once by the German princes
and by Pope Clement V., the aspirations of the new king turned to Italy,
where he hoped by restoring the imperial authority to prepare the way
for the conquest of the Holy Land. Meanwhile he strove to secure his
position in Germany. The Rhenish archbishops were pacified by the
restoration of the Rhine tolls, negotiations were begun with Philip IV.,
king of France, and with Robert, king of Naples, and the Habsburgs were
confirmed in their possessions. At this time Bohemia was ruled by Henry
V., duke of Carinthia, but the terrible disorder which prevailed induced
some of the Bohemians to offer the crown, together with the hand of
Elizabeth, daughter of the late king Wenceslas II., to John, the son of
the German king. Henry accepted the offer, and in August 1310 John was
invested with Bohemia and his marriage was celebrated. Before John's
coronation at Prague, however, in February 1311, Henry had crossed the
Alps. His hopes of reuniting Germany and Italy and of restoring the
empire of the Hohenstaufen were flattered by an appeal from the
Ghibellines to come to their assistance, and by the fact that many
Italians, sharing the sentiments expressed by Dante in his _De
Monarchia_, looked eagerly for a restoration of the imperial authority.
In October 1310 he reached Turin where, on receiving the homage of the
Lombard cities, he declared that he favoured neither Guelphs nor
Ghibellines, but only sought to impose peace. Having entered Milan he
placed the Lombard crown upon his head on the 6th of January 1311. But
trouble soon showed itself. His poverty compelled him to exact money
from the citizens; the peaceful professions of the Guelphs were
insincere, and Robert, king of Naples, watched his progress with
suspicion. Florence was fortified against him, and the mutual hatred of
Guelph and Ghibelline was easily renewed. Risings took place in various
places and, after the capture of Brescia, Henry marched to Rome only to
find the city in the hands of the Guelphs and the troops of King Robert.
Some street fighting ensued, and the king, unable to obtain possession
of St Peter's, was crowned emperor on the 29th of June 1312 in the
church of St John Lateran by some cardinals who declared they only acted
under compulsion. Failing to subdue Florence, the emperor from his
headquarters at Pisa prepared to attack Robert of Naples, for which
purpose he had allied himself with Frederick III., king of Sicily. But
Clement, anxious to protect Robert, threatened Henry with
excommunication. Undeterred by the threat the emperor collected fresh
forces, made an alliance with the Venetians, and set out for Naples. On
the march he was, however, taken ill, and died at Buonconvento near
Siena on the 24th of August 1313, and was buried at Pisa. His death was
attributed, probably without reason, to poison given him by a Dominican
friar in the sacramental wine. Henry is described by his contemporary
Albertino Mussato, in the _Historia Augusta_, as a handsome man, of
well-proportioned figure, with reddish hair and arched eyebrows, but
disfigured by a squint. He adds, among other details, that he was slow
and laconic in his speech, magnanimous and devout, but impatient of any
compacts with his subjects, loathing the mention of the Guelph and
Ghibelline factions, and insisting on the absolute authority of the
Empire over all (_cuncta absoluto complectens Imperio_). He was,
however, a lover of justice, and as a knight both bold and skilful. He
was hailed by Dante as the deliverer of Italy, and in the _Paradiso_ the
poet reserved for him a place marked by a crown.
The contemporary documents for the life and reign of Henry VII. are
very numerous. Many of them are found in the _Rerum Italicarum
scriptores_, edited by L. A. Muratori (Milan, 1723-1751), others in
_Fontes rerum Germanicarum_, edited by J. F. Bohmer (Stuttgart,
1843-1868), and in _Die Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit_,
Bande 79 and 80 (Leipzig, 1884). The following modern works may also
be consulted: _Acta Henrici VII. imperatoris Romanorum_, edited by G.
Donniges (Berlin, 1839); F. Bonaini, _Acta Henrici VII. Romanorum
imperatoris_ (Florence, 1877); T. Lindner, _Deutsche Geschichte unter
den Habsburgern und Luxemburgern_ (Stuttgart, 1888-1893); J.
Heidemann, "Die Konigswahl Heinrichs von Luxemburg," in the
_Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, Band xi. (Gottingen,
1862-1886); B. Thomas, _Zur Konigswahl des Grafen Heinrich von
Luxemburg_ (Strassburg, 1875); D. Konig, _Kritische Erorterungen zu
einigen italienischen Quellen fur die Geschichte des Romerzuges Konigs
Heinrich VII._ (Gottingen, 1874); K. Wenck, _Clemens V. und Heinrich
VII._ (Halle, 1882); F. W. Barthold, _Der Romerzug Konig Heinrichs von
Lutzelburg_ (Konigsberg, 1830-1831); R. Pohlmann, _Der Romerzug Konig
Heinrichs VII. und die Politik der Curie_ (Nuremberg, 1875); W.
Donniges, _Kritik der Quellen fur die Geschichte Heinrichs VII. des
Luxemburgers_ (Berlin, 1841), and G. Sommerfeldt, _Die Romfahrt Kaiser
Heinrichs VII._ (Konigsberg, 1888).
HENRY VII. (1211-1242), German king, son of the emperor Frederick II.
and his first wife Constance, daughter of Alphonso II., king of Aragon,
was crowned king of Sicily in 1212 and made duke of Swabia in 1216. Pope
Innocent III. had favoured his coronation as king of Sicily in the hope
that the union of this island with the Empire would be dissolved, and
had obtained a promise from Frederick to this effect. In spite of this,
however, Henry was chosen king of the Romans, or German king, at
Frankfort in April 1220, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 8th of
May 1222 by his guardian Engelbert, archbishop of Cologne. He appears to
have spent most of his youth in Germany, and on the 18th of November
1225 was married at Nuremberg to Margaret (d. 1267), daughter of Leopold
VI., duke of Austria. Henry's marriage was the occasion of some
difference of opinion, as Engelbert wished him to marry an English
princess, and the name of a Bohemian princess was also mentioned in this
connexion, but Frederick insisted upon the union with Margaret. The
murder of Engelbert in 1225 was followed by an increase of disorder in
Germany in which Henry soon began to participate, and in 1227 he took
part in a quarrel which had arisen on the death of Henry V., the
childless count palatine of the Rhine. About this time the relations
between Frederick and his son began to be somewhat strained. The emperor
had favoured the Austrian marriage because Margaret's brother, Duke
Frederick II., was childless; but Henry took up a hostile attitude
towards his brother-in-law and wished to put away his wife and marry
Agnes, daughter of Wenceslaus I., king of Bohemia. Other causes of
trouble probably existed, for in 1231 Henry not only refused to appear
at the diet at Ravenna, but opposed the privileges granted by Frederick
to the princes at Worms. In 1232, however, he submitted to his father,
promising to adopt the emperor's policy and to obey his commands. He did
not long keep his word and was soon engaged in thwarting Frederick's
wishes in several directions, until in 1233 he took the decisive step of
issuing a manifesto to the princes, and the following year raised the
standard of revolt at Boppard. He obtained very little support in
Germany, however, while the suspicion that he favoured heresy deprived
him of encouragement from the pope. On the other hand, he succeeded in
forming an alliance with the Lombards in December 1234, but his few
supporters fell away when the emperor reached Germany in 1235, and,
after a vain attack on Worms, Henry submitted and was kept for some time
as a prisoner in Germany, though his formal deposition as German king
was not considered necessary, as he had broken the oath taken in 1232.
He was soon removed to San Felice in Apulia, and afterwards to Martirano
in Calabria, where he died, probably by his own hand, on the 12th of
February 1242, and was buried at Cosenza. He left two sons, Frederick
and Henry, both of whom died in Italy about 1251.
See J. Rohden, _Der Sturz Heinrichs VII._ (Gottingen, 1883); F. W.
Schirrmacher, _Die letzten Hohenstaufen_ (Gottingen, 1871), and E.
Winkelmann, _Kaiser Friedrich II._ (Leipzig, 1889).