EDUCATION
OUTLINE OF TOPICS: Old-style education; study of Dutch; modern
education; branches of curricula; three kinds of schools; school age;
the Imperial Rescript; kindergartens; elementary schools; middle
schools; higher schools; universities; normal schools; agricultural
schools; technical schools; commercial schools; foreign language
schools; art and music; eleemosynary institutions; female education;
professional schools; private schools; mission schools; foreign
instructors and study abroad; teachers’ associations; libraries;
scientific study; defects of Japanese education.—Bibliography.
The old-style education was at first Buddhist, afterwards Confucian,
in method and matter. It comprised chiefly instruction in the Japanese
and the Chinese languages, literature, and history, and was mostly
confined to the samurai (knights), or military class. Female education
consisted mainly of reading and writing Japanese, the elaborate rules
of etiquette, and “polite accomplishments” in music and art. All
instruction was given pretty much by the Chinese system of lectures;
and a “memoriter” method of learning hampered original investigation.
Especially in the domain of Japanese history, so called, on which
rested the political institutions, skepticism was practically
synonymous with treason.
According to a Japanese authority, “the first book published [in
Japan] on foreign subjects” was by the famous scholar Arai Hakuseki
[1657-1725] under the title “Seiyō Kibun” (Notes of the Western
Ocean). Early in the eighteenth century a few scholars were officially
commissioned to study Dutch; and many others secretly engaged in the
same pursuit. It was almost entirely through the Dutch that, during the
period of seclusion, the Japanese obtained their knowledge of Western
countries and peoples, of history and science, especially of medical
science.[144] Several Dutch scholars also studied Japan.
But since the opening of Japan new ideas have gradually come to
prevail; and especially since the Restoration of 1868, education,
like all other institutions of Japan, has had the methodical and
progressive spirit of Western civilization infused into it. Foreigners,
especially Americans, were called in to remodel the whole system and
to instruct in the new education. Thus in the various provinces the
system of education was graded and made harmonious for the entire
empire. Kindergartens have been established in many localities, and
are especially valuable, because most mothers are incompetent to give
satisfactory home instruction. Six is the age at which a child may
enter the “elementary school” for a course of eight years; next comes
the “middle school” for five years; then the “higher school” for two
or three years, and, finally, the Imperial Universities at Tōkyō and
Kyōto, each with its various colleges. There are also normal schools,
“common” and “higher,” for the training of teachers, and a great many
technical and professional schools, public and private. Missionary
schools of all grades are doing an excellent work, and in many
particulars supplying a great need. Co-education prevails only in the
elementary schools; and the higher education of woman has been sadly
neglected, but better provision for it is gradually being made. The
first year of the new century was marked by the establishment at Tōkyō
of the first University for Women.[145] The present Emperor attended
the “Nobles’ School,” and having ascended the throne, becomes the first
Japanese Emperor educated in a public school; and the Empress Sada
attended the Peeresses’ School.
[Illustration: IMPERIAL UNIVERSITY BUILDINGS, TŌKYŌ]
The principal branches taught in the elementary schools are reading,
writing, arithmetic (Japanese and foreign), composition, grammar,
geography, history, physical exercise, morals (Confucian), and English;
those in the middle and higher schools are Japanese and Chinese
history, composition, language and literature, general history,
mathematics, sciences, philosophy, morals, physical exercise, English,
French, and German; in the universities the lines of study are varied
and specialized. The Japanese learn well to translate, write, and speak
the modern languages, and in the university may study Latin, Greek, and
Sanskrit.
If we classify Japanese schools according to management, there are
three kinds: those respectively under the central government, local
authorities, and private auspices. Those of the first class are under
the supervision of the Department of Education, are mainly special
schools and higher institutions of learning, and are supported by
appropriations voted by the Imperial Diet in the annual budget. Those
of the second class are mainly elementary, middle and normal schools,
are under the supervision of the local authorities, and are supported
by local taxes, sometimes supplemented by national aid. Those of the
third class are supported chiefly by tuition fees, but may also be
assisted by individual beneficence.[146]
The school age for children is from six to fourteen, and covers the
period of the elementary school; while the period of compulsory
attendance is from six to ten years of age. During the latter period
education is free; and in any case tuition fees are arranged to suit
the financial ability of the payer. Corporal punishment is not allowed
in any school.
The inspiring motive of education in Japan is found in an Imperial
Rescript that the late Emperor issued in October, 1890. A copy of
this is kept, often hanging framed, in every school, and on special
occasions it is read aloud, while all the scholars reverently listen
with bowed heads. It reads as follows:[147]—
KNOW YE, OUR SUBJECTS:
Our Imperial Ancestors have founded Our Empire on a basis broad
and everlasting and have deeply and firmly implanted virtue. Our
subjects, ever united in loyalty and filial piety, have from
generation to generation illustrated the beauty thereof. This is
the glory of the fundamental character of Our Empire, and herein
also lies the source of Our education. Ye, Our subjects, be filial
to your parents, affectionate to your brothers and sisters, as
husbands and wives be harmonious, as friends true; brothers, bear
yourselves in modesty and moderation; extend your benevolence to all;
pursue learning and cultivate arts, and thereby develop intellectual
faculties and perfect moral powers; furthermore, advance public
good and promote common interests; always respect the Constitution
and observe the laws; should emergency arise, offer yourselves
courageously to the State; and thus guard and maintain the prosperity
of Our Imperial Throne coeval with heaven and earth. So shall ye not
only be Our good and faithful subjects, but render illustrious the
best traditions of your forefathers.
The Way here set forth is indeed the teaching bequeathed by Our
Imperial Ancestors, to be observed alike by their Descendants and the
subjects, infallible for all ages and true in all reverence in common
with you, Our subjects, that we may all thus attain to the same
virtue.
There are between 200 and 300 kindergartens, public and private, in
Japan; and they are conducted, so far as outward forms are concerned,
very much as in America and Europe. The common means of training
are games, singing, conversation, and handiwork. But the Christian
kindergartens are the only ones that carry out to full fruition the
real spirit, as expressed in Froebel’s own words: “My system is based
upon religion and leads up to religion.” The Christian kindergartens
are quite popular and successful.
The Japanese elementary school, like the American grammar school,
covers a period of eight years, which is, however, divided into two
parts of four years each. The lower portion is called the “common
elementary school,” and the upper portion is the “higher elementary
school.” In many a small village only the former is maintained, and the
latter is often carried on by the co-operation of several villages;
but in large places both exist, either separately or conjointly. Under
certain circumstances a supplementary course may be established in
elementary schools (_Shō Gakkō_). English may be begun in the higher
elementary school, and it is required in every middle school.
Each prefecture must maintain at least one middle school (_Chū
Gakkō_), and three prefectures have as many as seven each. This
institution corresponds practically to an American high school; but
its course of study covers five years, besides the opportunity of a
supplementary year. Candidates for admission must be over twelve years
of age, and possess attainments equal to those who have completed the
second year of the higher elementary school. Thus two years of these
schools lap over each other. The number of middle schools, in spite of
annual increase, is still inadequate to accommodate all the applicants.
There are in Japan eight “higher schools” (_Kōtō Gakkō_), located at
Tōkyō, Sendai, Kyōto, Kanazawa, Kumamoto, Okayama, Yamaguchi, and
Kagoshima. These bear numbers in this order, and are often called by
the name “High School,” because the word _Kōtō_ means simply “high
grade.” If the reader, for instance, sees elsewhere a reference to the
“Third High School,” it will refer to the _Kōtō Gakkō_ at Kyōto. The
word “Higher” is, therefore, used in this book to avoid confusion.
These schools are clearing-houses, or preparatory schools, for the
universities, and have also their own complete departments.
At present there are only two public universities in Japan,—at
Tōkyō and Kyōto. The former contains six colleges (Law, Medicine,
Engineering, Literature, Science, and Agriculture); and the latter
consists of only four colleges (Law, Medicine, Science, and
Engineering), but others will be added gradually. There are also just
two great private universities, both in Tōkyō: the Keiō-gijiku, founded
by the late Mr. Fukuzawa, the “great commoner,” and the “grand old man”
of Japan; and the Waseda, founded by that veteran statesman, Count
Ōkuma. There is no Christian institution of university grade, although
it is confidently expected that the Dōshisha, at Kyōto, will soon be
elevated again to that rank. The Japanese universities have very good
accommodations and equipment, with strong faculties, and are doing work
worthy to be compared with that of Occidental universities. One of the
most unique phases of university work in Japan is the fact that the
Imperial University in Tōkyō maintains a chair of seismology, or, in
other words, supports a most important “professor of earthquakes”!
Common normal schools number over fifty; there must be at least one in
each prefecture, and in four cases there are two or three each. Besides
these and above these is a “higher normal school,” or normal college,
in Tōkyō, with an elementary school and a middle school for practice
work. There is also in Tōkyō a “higher female normal school,” with a
kindergarten, an elementary school, and a high school for practice
work. But these provisions are inadequate to supply the increasing
demand for teachers in public schools.
Inasmuch as Japan is an agricultural country and is rich in forests,
agricultural and dendrological schools are a necessity, in order that
the people may be able to make the most out of their resources. The
Sapporo Agricultural College, founded by Americans in 1872, is the best
of its kind, and furnishes a broader course of study than its name
implies.
And, in order that the industrial life of New Japan may be elevated,
and both capital and labor may profit by the latest inventions and
improvements, manual training and other technical schools have been
started and are very popular.
[Illustration: EDUCATORS AND SCIENTISTS OF JAPAN
BARON ISHIGURO, VISCOUNT MORI, MR. FUKUZAWA, DR. KITASATO]
In view of the fact that the Japanese are not fitted by natural
temperament for a mercantile life, and yet the geographical position of
Japan is so well adapted to a commercial career, the need of thorough
instruction in modern methods of business has been keenly felt, and is
being supplied by business colleges, of which the Higher Commercial
School in Tōkyō is most useful and prosperous.
Formerly an adjunct of the above-mentioned institution, but now an
independent organization, is the Foreign Language School, Tōkyō.
Besides this, several foreign languages are taught in the middle and
higher schools and the universities; and there are also a great many
private schools and classes for instruction in one or more foreign
languages. English is, of course, the most popular and most useful.
The Tōkyō Fine Arts School is the best of its kind, and gives
instruction in painting (both Japanese and European), designing,
sculpture, and “industrial arts,” like engraving, puddling, casting,
lacquer, etc. The Tōkyō Academy of Music is a type of its kind,
and gives instruction in vocal and instrumental music and musical
composition. It has accomplished wonders along those lines.
The education of the blind, the deaf, and the dumb is not neglected
in Japan; there are ten schools for the benefit of these unfortunates;
and the government institution in Tōkyō is the most important. Charity
schools and orphan asylums are also carried on, chiefly under Christian
auspices, in very poor districts in large cities.
During the early years of New Japan female education was almost
entirely in the hands of the Christian missionaries, who alone seemed
to realize the necessity of a better education and training for the
future mothers of the nation. But thinking Japanese have come to
realize, with Count Ōkuma, that all countries which have attempted “to
work with the male sex as the single standard” have “fallen signally
behind in the march of progress”; and that “Japan by raising woman
to her proper place should provide herself with a double standard.”
Thus it has come about that educational privileges for girls and young
ladies are increasing.
Law schools, medical schools, theological seminaries, and other
professional schools are numerous; on these lines private enterprise is
very active, because the public institutions are inadequate.
There used to be a great dearth of good private institutions of
learning, and this lack was partly due to the fact that private
enterprise in this direction received little encouragement, and public
spirit was lacking on the part of those who might have assisted in
this way. But recently both the advantages of private schools and the
opportunities thus afforded to men of means have come to be appreciated.
In this connection a few words should be written concerning mission
schools, which will also be considered in the chapter on Christianity.
In spite of limitations both from within and from without, these
institutions, having their “ups and downs,” nevertheless maintained
themselves and have won popular favor against a strong prejudice.
They have always insisted upon a high mental and moral standard,
and have without doubt aroused the public schools to raise their
standards and ideals. Whatever may be said for or against mission
schools as evangelizing agencies, it is generally acknowledged that, as
educational institutions, they have been models of correct pedagogical
principles and exemplars of high morality.
It is also interesting to note that, after a period during which the
Japanese thought that they could teach foreign languages as well as
foreigners, there is an increasing demand for foreign instructors.
Within the past two years several young men from America have
been engaged as teachers of English in middle schools; and such
opportunities are increasing. Moreover, a larger number of students
than ever are annually sent abroad by the government, or go abroad at
their own expense, to finish their education. Thus narrow prejudices
are dissipated and minds are broadened.
Another means for improving the educational system of Japan is to be
found in teachers’ associations, educational societies, and summer
institutes. The first two are local; the last are national. The
educational societies are for the purpose of increasing the general
interest in education in the different localities; the teachers’
associations are, as in America, for the improvement of methods of
instruction; and the summer institutes are for the same purpose on a
broader scale.
What was written about private schools may be repeated concerning
libraries. No Japanese Carnegie has yet appeared; only a few men, like
Mr. Ōhashi, and the late Baron Kodama, formerly Governor of Formosa,
have endowed libraries as memorials. The largest public library is the
Imperial Library[148] in Tōkyō, with over 400,000 volumes, of which
more than 50,000 volumes are in European languages.
It is in the domain of science that the Japanese have achieved,
perhaps, their greatest intellectual successes. Their work in original
investigation is always painstaking, and in many cases it has attained
an international reputation. The names of Dr. Kitasato, associated with
the famous Dr. Koch in his researches, and Dr. Aoyama, the hero of the
pest in China, are well known; and now comes Dr. Ishigami, who claims
to have discovered the germ of smallpox.
The chief defects in the Japanese educational system are on three
lines: dependence on Chinese ideographs, vague instruction in ethics,
and encouragement of cramming. The removal of these hindrances to
progress is engaging the attention of thoughtful educators, but is a
slow and gradual process.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
“The Wee Ones of Japan” (Mrs. Bramhall), pp. 97-108; “When I was
a Boy in Japan” (Shioya); “A Japanese Boy” (Shigemi); “Japanese
Girls and Women” and “A Japanese Interior” (Miss Bacon), all give
interesting accounts of school life in both Old and New Japan.
The Department of Education issues annually in English, for free
distribution on application, a “Report,” which contains the latest
statistics and other information. “The Educational Conquest of
the Far East” (Lewis) is an excellent discussion of educational
conditions and problems of the day in China and Japan. See also
Scherer’s “Young Japan,” pp. 284-311. The (English) catalogue of the
Imperial University, Tōkyō, is instructive. “Every Day Japan” (Lloyd)
contains interesting material on this subject. “Japanese Education”
(Kikuchi) is authoritative.