Produced by Clytie Siddall, Joshua Hutchinson and Distributed Proofreaders
[Illustration: THE SOUTHERN HOUND.]
THE DOG,
BY WILLIAM YOUATT.
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS
[Illustration: HEAD OF BLOODHOUND]
EDITED, WITH ADDITIONS,
BY E. J. LEWIS, M.D.
Member of the Academy of Natural Science of Philadelphia; of the
Philadelphia Medical Society; of the Parisian Medical Society, &c. &c.
1852.
Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1846, by
LEA AND BLANCHARD,
in the clerk's office of the District Court of the United States for the
Eastern District of Pennsylvania.
* * * * *
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
THE SOUTHERN HOUND
HEAD OF BLOODHOUND
ANCIENT SCULPTURE OF GREYHOUNDS
THE THIBET DOG
THE DINGO, OR NEW HOLLAND DOG
THE HARE INDIAN DOG
THE DANISH, OR DALMATIAN DOG
THE GREYHOUND
THE GRECIAN GREYHOUND
BLENHEIMS AND COCKERS
THE WATER SPANIEL
THE POODLE
THE ALPINE SPANIEL, OR BERNARDINE DOG
THE NEWFOUNDLAND DOG
THE ESQUIMAUX DOG
THE ENGLISH SHEEP DOG
THE SCOTCH SHEEP DOG
THE BEAGLE
THE HARRIER
THE FOX HOUND
PLAN OF GOODWOOD KENNEL
THE SETTER
THE POINTER
THE BULL-DOG
THE MASTIFF
THE SCOTCH TERRIER
SKELETON OF THE DOG
DOG'S HEAD CONFINED FOR AN OPERATION
DOG'S EYE PREPARED FOR AN OPERATION
TEETH OF THE DOG AT SEVEN DIFFERENT AGES
* * * * *
PREFACE OF THE EDITOR.
The Editor, having been called upon by the American publishers of the
present volume to see it through the press, and add such matter as he
deemed likely to increase its value to the sportsman and the lover of
dogs in this country, the more readily consented to undertake the task,
as he had previously, during the intervals of leisure left by
professional avocations, paid much attention to the diseases, breeding,
rearing, and peculiarities of the canine race, with a view to the
preparation of a volume on the subject.
His design, however, being in a great measure superseded by the enlarged
and valuable treatise of Mr. Youatt, whose name is a full guarantee as
to the value of whatever he may give to the world, he found that not
much remained to be added. Such points, however, as he thought might be
improved, and such matter as appeared necessary to adapt the volume more
especially to the wants of this country, he has introduced in the course
of its pages. These additions, amounting to about sixty pages, will be
found between brackets, with the initial of the Editor appended. He
trusts they will not detract from the interest of the volume, while he
hopes that its usefulness may be thereby somewhat increased.
With this explanation of his connexion with the work, he leaves it in
the hope that it may prove of value to the sportsman from its immediate
relation to his stirring pursuits; to the general reader, from the large
amount of curious information collected in its pages, which is almost
inaccessible in any other form; and to the medical student, from the
light it sheds on the pathology and diseases of the dog, by which he
will be surprised to learn how many ills that animal shares in common
with the human race.
The editor will be satisfied with his agency in the publication of this
volume, if it should be productive of a more extended love for this
brave, devoted, and sagacious animal, and be the means of improving his
lot of faithful servitude. It is with these views that the editor has
occasionally turned from more immediate engagements to investigate his
character, and seek the means of ameliorating his condition.
PHILADELPHIA, October, 1846.
* * * * *
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Chapter
I. The Early History and Zoological Classification of the Dog
II. The Varieties of the Dog.--First Division
III. The Varieties of the Dog.--Second Division
IV. The Varieties of the Dog.--Third Division
V. The Good Qualities of the Dog;
the Sense of Smell;
Intelligence;
Moral Qualities;
Dog-carts;
Cropping;
Tailing;
Breaking-in;
Dog-pits;
Dog-stealing
VI. Description of the Skeleton.
Diseases of the Nervous System: Fits;
Turnside;
Epilepsy;
Chorea;
Rheumatism and Palsy
VII. Rabies
VIII. The Eye and its Diseases
IX. The Ear and its Diseases
X. Anatomy of the Nose and Mouth;
and Diseases of the Nose and other parts of the Face.
The Sense of Smell;
the Tongue;
the Lips;
the Teeth;
the Larynx;
Bronchocele;
Phlegmonous Tumour
XI. Anatomy and Diseases of the Chest:
the Diaphragm;
the Pericardium;
the Heart;
Pleurisy;
Pneumonia;
Spasmodic Cough
XII. Anatomy of the Gullet,
Stomach, and Intestines:
Tetanus;
Enteritis;
Peritonitis;
Colic;
Calculus in the Intestines;
Intussusception;
Diarrhoea;
Dysentery;
Costiveness;
Dropsy;
the Liver;
Jaundice;
the Spleen and Pancreas;
Inflammation of the Kidney;
Calculus;
Inflammation of the Bladder;
Rupture of the Bladder;
Worms;
Fistula in the Anus
XIII. Bleeding;
Torsion;
Castration;
Parturition;
and some Diseases Connected with the Organs of Generation
XIV. The Distemper
XV. Small-pox;
Mange;
Warts;
Cancer;
Fungus Hæmotodes;
Sore Feet
XVI. Fractures
XVII. Medicines used in the Treatment of the Diseases of the Dog
Appendix. New Laws of Coursing
Index.
* * * * *
THE DOG.
CHAPTER I.
THE EARLY HISTORY AND ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE DOG.
The Dog, next to the human being, ranks highest in the scale of
intelligence, and was evidently designed to be the companion and the
friend of man. We exact the services of other animals, and, the task
being performed, we dismiss them to their accustomed food and rest; but
several of the varieties of the dog follow us to our home; they are
connected with many of our pleasures and wants, and guard our sleeping
hours.
The first animal of the domestication of which we have any account, was
the sheep. "Abel was a keeper of sheep." [1] It is difficult to believe
that any long time would pass before the dog--who now, in every country
of the world, is the companion of the shepherd, and the director or
guardian of the sheep--would be enlisted in the service of man.
From the earliest known history he was the protector of the habitation
of the human being. At the feet of the 'lares', those household deities
who were supposed to protect the abodes of men, the figure of a barking
dog was often placed. In every age, and almost in every part of the
globe, he has played a principal part in the labours, the dangers, and
the pleasures of the chase.
In process of time, man began to surround himself with many servants
from among the lower animals, but among them all he had only one
friend--the dog; one animal only whose service was voluntary, and who
was susceptible of disinterested affection and gratitude. In every
country, and in every time, there has existed between man and the dog a
connection different from that which is observed between him and any
other animal. The ox and the sheep submit to our control, but their
affections are principally, if not solely, confined to themselves. They
submit to us, but they can rarely be said to love, or even to recognise
us, except as connected with the supply of their wants.
The horse will share some of our pleasures. He enjoys the chase as much
as does his rider; and, when contending for victory on the course, he
feels the full influence of emulation. Remembering the pleasure he has
experienced with his master, or the daily supply of food from the hand
of the groom, he often exhibits evident tokens of recognition; but that
is founded on a selfish principle--he neighs that he may be fed, and his
affections are easily transferred.
The dog is the only animal that is capable of disinterested affection.
He is the only one that regards the human being as his companion, and
follows him as his friend; the only one that seems to possess a natural
desire to be useful to him, or from a spontaneous impulse attaches
himself to man. We take the bridle from the mouth of the horse, and turn
him free into the pasture, and he testifies his joy in his partially
recovered liberty. We exact from the dog the service that is required of
him, and he still follows us. He solicits to be continued as our
companion and our friend. Many an expressive action tells us how much he
is pleased and thankful. He shares in our abundance, and he is content
with the scantiest and most humble fare. He loves us while living, and
has been known to pine away on the grave of his master.
[It is stated that the favourite lap-dog of Mary, Queen of Scots, that
accompanied her to the scaffold, continued to caress the body after the
head was cut off, and refused to relinquish his post till forcibly
withdrawn, and afterwards died with grief in the course of a day or
two.
The following account is also an authentic instance of the inconsolable
grief displayed by a small cur-dog at the death of his master:--A poor
tailor in the parish of St. Olave, having died, was attended to the
grave by his dog, who had expressed every token of sorrow from the
instant of his master's death, and seemed unwilling to quit the corpse
even for a moment. After the funeral had dispersed, the faithful animal
took his station upon the grave, and was with great difficulty driven by
the sexton from the church ground; on the following day he was again
observed lying on the grave of his master, and was a second time
expelled from the premises. Notwithstanding the harsh treatment received
on several succeeding days by the hands of the sexton, this little
creature would persist in occupying this position, and overcame every
difficulty to gain access to the spot where all he held most dear was
deposited. The minister of the parish, learning the circumstances of the
case, ordered the dog to be carried to his house, where he was confined
and fed for several days, in hopes of weaning him by kind treatment to
forget his sorrow occasioned by the loss of his master. But all his
benevolent efforts were of no utility, as the dog availed himself of the
first opportunity to escape, and immediately repaired to his chosen spot
over the grave.
This worthy clergyman now allowed him to follow the bent of his own
inclinations; and, as a recompense for true friendship and unfeigned
sorrow, had a house built for him over this hallowed spot, and daily
supplied him with food and water for the space of two years, during
which time he never wandered from his post, but, as a faithful guardian,
kept his lonely watch day and night, till death at last put an end to
his sufferings, and laid him by the side of his long-expected
master.--L.]
As an animal of draught the dog is highly useful in some countries. What
would become of the inhabitants of the northern regions, if the dog were
not harnessed to the sledge, and the Laplander, and the Greenlander, and
the Kamtschatkan drawn, and not unfrequently at the rate of nearly a
hundred miles a day, over the snowy wastes? In Newfoundland, the timber,
one of the most important articles of commerce, is drawn to the
water-side by the docile but ill-used dog; and we need only to cross the
British Channel in order to see how useful, and, generally speaking, how
happy a beast of draught the dog can be.
[Large mongrel dogs are very extensively used on the Continent in
pulling small vehicles adapted to various purposes. In fact, most of the
carts and wagons that enter Paris, or are employed in the city, have one
of these animals attached to them by a short strap hanging from the
axle-tree. This arrangement answers the double purpose of keeping off
all intruders in the temporary absence of the master, and, by pushing
himself forward in his collar, materially assists the horse in
propelling a heavy load up-hill, or of carrying one speedily over a
plain surface. It is quite astonishing to see how well broken to this
work these dogs are, and at the same time to witness with what vigour
and perseverance they labour in pushing before them, in that way,
enormous weights.--L.]
Though, in our country, and to its great disgrace, this employment of
the dog has been accompanied by such wanton and shameful cruelty, that
the Legislature--somewhat hastily confounding the abuse of a thing with
its legitimate purpose--forbade the appearance of the dog-cart in the
metropolitan districts, and were inclined to extend this prohibition
through the whole kingdom, it is much to be desired that a kindlier and
better feeling may gradually prevail, and that this animal, humanely
treated, may return to the discharge of the services of which nature has
rendered him capable, and which prove the greatest source of happiness
to him while discharging them to the best of his power.
In another and very important particular,--as the preserver of human
life,--the history of the dog will be most interesting. The writer of
this work has seen a Newfoundland dog who, on five distinct occasions,
preserved the life of a human being; and it is said of the noble
quadruped whose remains constitute one of the most interesting specimens
in the museum of Berne, that forty persons were rescued by him from
impending destruction.
When this friend and servant of man dies, he does not or may not cease
to be useful; for in many countries, and to a far greater extent than is
generally imagined, his skin is useful for gloves, or leggings, or mats,
or hammercloths; and, while even the Romans occasionally fattened him
for the table, and esteemed his flesh a dainty, many thousands of people
in Asia, Africa, and America, now breed him expressly for food.
If the publication of the present work should throw some additional
light on the good qualities of this noble animal; if it should enable us
to derive more advantage from the services that he can render--to train
him more expeditiously and fully for the discharge of those services--to
protect him from the abuses to which he is exposed, and to mitigate or
remove some of the diseases which his connection with man has entailed
upon him; if any of these purposes be accomplished, we shall derive
considerable "useful knowledge" as well as pleasure from the perusal of
the present volume.
Some controversy has arisen with regard to the origin of the dog.
Professor Thomas Bell, to whom we are indebted for a truly valuable
history of the British quadrupeds, traces him to the wolf. He says, and
it is perfectly true, that the osteology of the wolf does not differ
materially from that of the dog more than that of the different kinds of
dogs differs; that the cranium is similar, and they agree in nearly all
the other essential points; that the dog and wolf will readily breed
with each other, and that their progeny, thus obtained, will again
mingle with the dog. [The relative length of the intestines is a strong
distinctive mark both as to the habits and species of animals; those of
a purely carnivorous nature are much shorter than others who resort
entirely to an herbaceous diet, or combine the two modes of sustenance
according to circumstances. The dog and wolf have the intestines of the
same length. (See Sir Everard Home on Comparative Anatomy.)--L.] There
is one circumstance, however, which seems to mark a decided difference
between the two animals; the eye of the dog of every country and species
has a circular pupil, but the position or form of the pupil is oblique
in the wolf. Professor Bell gives an ingenious but not admissible reason
for this. He attributes the forward direction of the eyes in the dog to
the constant habit, "for many successive generations, of looking towards
their master, and obeying his voice:" but no habit of this kind could by
possibility produce any such effect. It should also be remembered that,
in every part of the globe in which the wolf is found this form of the
pupil, and a peculiar setting on of the curve of the tail, and a
singularity in the voice, cannot fail of being observed; to which may be
added, that the dog exists in every latitude and in every climate, while
the habitation of the wolf is confined to certain parts of the globe.
There is also a marked difference in the temper and habits of the two.
The dog is, generally speaking, easily manageable, but nothing will, in
the majority of cases, render the wolf moderately tractable. There are,
however, exceptions to this. The author remembers a bitch wolf at the
Zoological Gardens that would always come to the front bars of her den
to be caressed as soon as any one that she knew approached. She had
puppies while there, and she brought her little ones in her mouth to be
noticed by the spectators; so eager, indeed, was she that they should
share with her in the notice of her friends, that she killed them all in
succession against the bars of her den as she brought them forcibly
forward to be fondled.
M.F. Cuvier gives an account of a young wolf who followed his master
everywhere, and showed a degree of affection and submission scarcely
inferior to the domesticated dog. His master being unavoidably absent,
he was sent to the menagerie, where he pined for his loss, and would
scarcely take any food for a considerable time. At length, however, he
attached himself to his keepers, and appeared to have forgotten his
former associate. At the expiration of eighteen months his master
returned, and, the moment his voice was heard, the wolf recognised him,
and lavished on his old friend the most affectionate caresses. A second
separation followed, which lasted three years, and again the
long-remembered voice was recognised, and replied to with impatient
cries; after which, rushing on his master, he licked his face with every
mark of joy, menacing his keepers, towards whom he had just before been
exhibiting fondness. A third separation occurred, and he became gloomy
and melancholy. He suffered the caresses of none but his keepers, and
towards them he often manifested the original ferocity of his species.
These stories, however, go only a little way to prove that the dog and
the wolf have one common origin. [There are some naturalists that even
go so far as to state that the different varieties of dogs are sprung
from, or compounded of, various animals, as the hyaena, jackal, wolf,
and fox. The philosophic John Hunter commenced a series of experiments
upon this interesting subject, and was forced to acknowledge that "the
dog may be the wolf tamed, and the jackal may probably be the dog
returned to his wild state."
The ancient Cynegetical writers were not only acquainted with the cross
between the wolf and dog, but also boasted the possession of breeds of
animals, supposed to have been derived from a connection with the lion
and tiger. The Hyrcanian dog, although savage and powerful beast, was
rendered much more formidable in battle, or in conflict with other
animals, by his fabled cross with the tiger. In corroboration of this
singular, but not less fabulous belief, Pliny states that the
inhabitants of India take pleasure in having dog bitches lined by the
wild tigers, and to facilitate this union, they are in the habit of
tieing them when in heat out in the woods, so that the male tigers may
visit them. (See L. 8, c. xl.)
There is, however, but little doubt that the wolf and dog are varieties
of the same family, as they can he bred together, and their offspring
continuing the cross thus formed, will produce a race quite distinct
from the original. French writers do not hesitate at all upon this
point, but even assert that it is very difficult to take a she-wolf with
male dogs during the period of oestrum, parceque la veulent saillir et
covrir comme une chienne.
Baudrillart, in the "dictionaire des chasses," further remarks that the
mongrels produced by this connection are very viciously disposed and
inclined to bite.
The period of utero-gestation, and the particular mode of copulation in
the wolf, is the same as that of the canine family, which two
circumstances are certainly very strong presumptive evidences of the
similarity of the species. The dogs used by our northern Indians
resemble very much, in their general appearance, the wolves of that
region, and do not seem very far removed from that race of animals,
notwithstanding they have been in a state of captivity, or
domestication, beyond the traditionary chronicles of this rude people.
Another strong circumstance in favour of the common origin of these two
quadrupeds, is the existence in our own country of the Canis Latrans, or
prairie wolf, who whines and barks in a manner so similar to the smaller
varieties of dogs, that it is almost impossible to distinguish his notes
from those of the terrier.
Major Long remarks that "this animal which does not seem to be known to
naturalists, unless it should prove to be the Mexicanus, is most
probably the original of the domestic dog, so common in the villages of
the Indians of this region, some of the varieties of which still remain
much of the habit and manners of this species." (Vol. i, page 174.)
If further proof be necessary to establish the identity of the dog and
wolf, the circumstances related by Captain Parry in his first voyage of
discovery, ought to be sufficient to convince every mind that the wolf,
even in its wild state, will seek to form an alliance or connection with
one of our domestic dogs.
"About this time it had been remarked that a white setter dog,
belonging to Mr. Beverly, had left the Griper for several nights past
at the same time, and had regularly returned after some hours absence.
As the daylight increased we had frequent opportunities of seeing him
in company with a she-wolf, with whom he kept up an almost daily
intercourse for several weeks, till at length he returned no more to
the ships; having either lost his way by rambling to too great a
distance, or what is more likely, perhaps, been destroyed by the male
wolves. Some time after a large dog of mine, which was also getting
into the habit of occasionally remaining absent for some time,
returned on board a good deal lacerated and covered with blood,
having, no doubt, maintained a severe encounter with a male wolf, whom
we traced to a considerable distance by the tracks on the snow. An old
dog, of the Newfoundland breed, that we had on board the Hecla, was
also in the habit of remaining out with the wolves for a day or two
together, and we frequently watched them keeping company on the most
friendly terms."
(Page 136, 1st voyage.)
[In volume 1st, page 111, of the Menageries, it is stated that Mr.
Wombwell exhibited in October, 1828, two animals from a cross between
the wolf and the domestic dog, which had been bred in that country. They
were confined in the same den with a female setter, and were likely
again to multiply the species. Mr. Daniel remarks that Mr. Brook, famous
for his menagerie, turned a wolf to a Pomeranian bitch at heat; the
congress was immediate, and, as usual between the dog and bitch, ten
puppies were the produce. These animals strongly resembled their sire
both in appearance and disposition, and one of them being let loose at a
deer, instantly caught at the animal's throat and killed it. (See
Daniel's Rural Sports, vol. i, page 14.)--L.]
It may appear singular that in both the Old Testament and the New the
dog was spoken of almost with abhorrence. He ranked among the unclean
beasts. The traffic in him and the price of him were considered as an
abomination, and were forbidden to be offered in the sanctuary in the
discharge of any vow. [2]
One grand object in the institution of the Jewish ritual was to preserve
the Israelites from the idolatry which at that time prevailed among
every other people. Dogs were held in considerable veneration by the
Egyptians, from whose tyranny the Israelites had just escaped. Figures
of them appeared on the friezes of most of the temples, [3] and they
were regarded as emblems of the Divine Being. Herodotus, speaking of the
sanctity in which some animals were held by the Egyptians, says that the
people of every family in which a dog died, shaved themselves--their
expression of mourning--and he adds, that "this was a custom existing in
his own time." [4]
The cause of this attachment to and veneration for the dog is, however,
explained in a far more probable and pleasing way than many of the
fables of ancient mythology. The prosperity of Lower Egypt, and almost
the very subsistence of its inhabitants, depended on the annual
overflowing of the Nile; and they looked for it with the utmost anxiety.
Its approach was announced by the appearance of a certain star--SIRIUS.
As soon as that star was seen above the horizon, they hastened to remove
their flocks to the higher ground, and abandoned the lower pastures to
the fertilizing influence of the stream. They hailed it as their guard
and protector; and, associating with its apparent watchfulness the
well-known fidelity of the dog, they called it the "dog-star," and they
worshipped it. It was in far later periods and in other countries that
the appearance of the dog-star was regarded as the signal of
insufferable heat or prevalent disease.
One of the Egyptian deities--Anubis--is described as having the form and
body of a man, but with a dog's head. These were types of sagacity and
fidelity.
["Who knows not that infatuate Egypt finds
Gods to adore in brutes of basest kinds?
This at the crocodile's resentment quakes,
While that adores the ibis, gorged with snakes!
And where the radiant beam of morning rings
On shattered Memnon's still harmonious strings;
And Thebes to ruin all her gates resigns,
Of huge baboon the golden image shines!
To _mongrel curs_ infatuate cities bow,
And cats and fishes share the frequent vow!"
Juvenal, 'Sat. xv'.--Badham's Trans.--L.]
In Ethiopia, not only was great veneration paid to the dog, but the
inhabitants used to elect a dog as their king. He was kept in great
state, and surrounded by a numerous train of officers and guards. When
he fawned upon them, he was supposed to be pleased with their
proceedings: when he growled, he disapproved of the manner in which
their government was conducted. These indications of his will were
implicitly obeyed, or rather, perhaps, dictated.
[Among the many strange and wonderful things mentioned by Pliny as being
discovered in Africa, is a people called Ptoembati or Ptremphanae, whose
principal city is Aruspi, where they elect a dog for their king and obey
him most religiously, being governed entirely by the different motions
of his body, which they interpret according to certain signs. (See
Pliny, lib. vi, c. xxx.)--L.]
Even a thousand years after this period the dog was highly esteemed in
Egypt for its sagacity and other excellent qualities; for, when
Pythagoras, after his return from Egypt, founded a new sect in Greece,
and at Croton, in southern Italy, he taught, with the Egyptian
philosophers, that, at the death of the body, the soul entered into that
of different animals. He used, after the decease of any of his favourite
disciples, to cause a dog to be held to the mouth of the dying man, in
order to receive his departing spirit; saying, that there was no animal
that could perpetuate his virtues better than that quadruped.
It was in order to present the Israelites from errors and follies like
these, and to prevent the possibility of this species of idolatry being
established, that the dog was afterward regarded with utter abhorrence
among the Jews. [5] This feeling prevailed during the continuance of the
Israelites in Palestine. Even in the New Testament the Apostle warns
those to whom he wrote to "beware of dogs and evil-workers;" [6] and it
is said in The Revelations that "without are dogs and sorcerers," &c.
[7] Dogs were, however, employed even by the Jews. Job says, "Now they
that are younger than I have me in derision, whose fathers I would have
disdained to have set with the dogs of my flock." [8] Dogs were employed
either to guide the sheep or to protect them from wild beasts; and some
prowled about the streets at night, contending with each other for the
offal that was thrown away.
To a certain degree this dislike of the dog continues to the present
day; for, with few exceptions, the dog is seldom the chosen companion of
the Jew, or even the inmate of his house. Nor was it originally confined
to Palestine. Wherever a knowledge of the Jewish religion spread, or any
of its traditions were believed, there arose an abhorrence of the dog.
The Mohammedans have always regarded him as an unclean animal, that
should never be cherished in any human habitation--belonging to no
particular owner, but protecting the street [9] and the district rather
than the house of a master.
The Hindoos regard him likewise as unclean, and submit to various
purifications if they accidentally come in contact with him, believing
that every dog was animated by a wicked and malignant spirit, condemned
to do penance in that form for crimes committed in a previous state of
existence. If by chance a dog passed between a teacher and his pupil
during the period of instruction, it was supposed that the best lesson
would be completely poisoned, and it was deemed prudent to suspend the
tuition for at least a day and a night. Even in Egypt, dogs are now as
much avoided as they were venerated. In every Mohammedan and Hindoo
country, the most scurrilous epithet bestowed on a European or a
Christian is--"a dog!" [10]
This accounts for the singular fact that in the whole of the Jewish
history there is not a single allusion to hunting with dogs. Mention is
made of nets and snares, but the dog seems to have been never used in
the pursuit of game.
In the early periods of the history of other countries this seems to
have been the case even where the dog was esteemed and valued, and had
become the companion, the friend, and the defender of man and his home.
So late as the second century of the Christian era, the fair hunting of
the present day needed the eloquent defence of Arrian, who says that
"there is as much difference between a fair trial of speed in a good
run, and ensnaring a poor animal without an effort, as between the
secret piratical assaults of robbers at sea, and the victorious naval
engagements of the Athenians at Artemisium and at Salamis." [11] The
first hint of the employment of the dog in the pursuit of other animals
is given by Oppian in his Cynegeticus, who attributes it to Pollux,
about 200 years after the promulgation of the Levitical law.
Of the precise species of dog that prevailed or was cultivated in Greece
at this early period, little can with certainty be affirmed. One
beautiful piece of sculpture has been preserved, and is now in the
possession of Lord Feversham at Duncombe Hall. It is said to represent
the favourite dog of Alcibiades, and to have been the production of
Myson, one of the most skillful artists of ancient times. It differs but
little from the Newfoundland dog of the present day. He is represented
as sitting on his haunches, and earnestly looking at his master. Any one
would vouch for the sagacity and fidelity of that animal.
The British Museum contains a group of greyhound puppies of more recent
date, from the ruins of the villa of Antoninus, near Rome. One is
fondling the other; and the attitude of both, and the characteristic
puppy-clumsiness of their limbs, which indicate, nevertheless, the
beautiful proportions that will soon be developed, are an admirable
specimen of ancient art.
[Illustration of ancient sculpture of greyhounds]
The Greeks, in the earlier periods of their history, depended too much
on their nets; and it was not until later times that they pursued their
prey with dogs, and then not with dogs that ran by sight, or succeeded
by their swiftness of foot, but by beagles very little superior to those
of modern days [12]. Of the stronger and more ferocious dogs there is,
however, occasional mention. The bull-dog of modern date does not excel
the one (possibly of nearly the same race) that was presented to
Alexander the Great, and that boldly seized a ferocious lion, or another
that would not quit his hold, although one leg and then another was cut
off.
It would be difficult and foreign to the object of this work fully to
trace the early history of the dog. Both in Greece and in Rome he was
highly estimated. Alexander built a city in honour of a dog; and the
Emperor Hadrian decreed the most solemn rites of sepulture to another on
account of his sagacity and fidelity.
The translator of Arrian imagines that the use of the 'pugnaces'
(fighting) and the 'sagaces' (intelligent)--the more ferocious dogs, and
those who artfully circumvented and caught their prey--was known in the
earlier periods of Greek and Roman history, but that the 'celeres', the
dogs of speed, the greyhounds of every kind, were peculiar to the
British islands, or to the western and northern continents of Europe,
the interior and the produce of which were in those days unknown to the
Greeks and Romans. By most authors who have inquired into the origin of
these varieties of the dog, the 'sagaces' have been generally assigned
to Greece--the 'pugnaces' to Asia--and the 'celeres' to the Celtic
nations.
[The vertragi, 'canes celeres', or dogs that hunted by sight alone, were
not known to the ancients previous to the time of the younger Xenophon,
who then describes them as novelties just introduced into Greece:
"But the swift-footed Celtic hounds are called in the Celtic tongue
[Greek: ouéztragoi]; not deriving their name from any particular
nation, like the Cretan, Carian, or Spartan dogs, but, as some of the
Cretans are named [Greek: diaponoi] from working hard, [Greek: itamai]
from their keenness, and mongrels from their being compounded of both,
so these Celts are named from their swiftness. In figure, the most
high-bred are a prodigy of beauty; their eyes, their hair, their
colour, and bodily shape throughout. Such brilliancy of gloss is there
about the spottiness of the parti-coloured, and in those of uniform
colour, such glistening over the sameness of tint, as to afford a most
delightful spectacle to an amateur of coursing."
It is probable these dogs were carried, about this time, into the
southern parts of Europe by the various tribes of Celts who over-ran the
continent, and also occupied Ireland, Britain, and the other western
islands, and ultimately took possession of Gaul.--L.]
Of the aboriginal country of the latter there can be little doubt; but
the accounts that are given of the English mastiff at the invasion of
Britain by the Romans, and the early history of the English hound, which
was once peculiar to this country, and at the present day degenerates in
every other, would go far to prove that these breeds also are indigenous
to our island.
Oppian thus describes the hunting dog as he finds him in
Britain:
"There is, besides, an excellent kind of scenting dogs, though small,
yet worthy of estimation. They are fed by the fierce nation of painted
Britons, who call them 'agasoei'. In size they resemble worthless
greedy house-dogs that gape under tables. They are crooked, lean,
coarse-haired, and heavy-eyed, but armed with powerful claws and
deadly teeth. The 'agasoeus' is of good nose and most excellent in
following scent [13]."
Among the savage dogs of ancient times were the Hyrcanian, said, on
account of their extreme ferocity, to have been crossed with the tiger
[14],--the Locrian, chiefly employed in hunting the boar,--the
Pannonian, used in war as well as in the chase, and by whom the first
charge on the enemy was always made,--and the Molossian, of Epirus,
likewise trained to war as well as to the honours of the amphitheatre
and the dangers of the chase. This last breed had one redeeming
quality--an inviolable attachment to their owners. This attachment was
reciprocal; for it is said that the Molossi used to weep over their
faithful quadruped companions slain in war.
[Of all the dogs of the ancients, those bred on the continent of Epirus
were the most esteemed, and more particularly those from a southern
district called Molossia, from which they received their name.
These animals are described as being of enormous size, great courage and
powerful make, and were considered worthy not only to encounter the
wolf, bear, and boar, but often overcame the panther, tiger, and lion,
both in the chase and amphitheatre. They also, being trained to war,
proved themselves most useful auxiliaries to this martial people.
The learned translator of Arrian states that
"the fabled origin of this breed is consistent with its high repute;
for, on the authority of Nicander, we are told by Julius Pollux, that
the Epirote was descended from the brazen dog which Vulcan wrought for
Jupiter, and animated with all the functions of canine life."
These were not the only dogs fashioned by the skilful hands of the
Olympic artist, as we find Alcinous, king of the Phaeacians, possessing
golden dogs also wrought at the celestial forge.
Pliny states that a dog of enormous magnitude was sent as a present by
the king of Albania to Alexander the Great when on his march to India;
and "that this monarch being delighted at the sight of so huge and fair
a dog, let loose unto him first bears, then wild boars, and lastly
fallow deer, all of which animals he took no notice of, but remained
perfectly unconcerned. This great warrior being a man of high spirit and
wonderful courage, was greatly displeased at the apparent cowardice and
want of energy in so powerful an animal, and ordered him to be slain.
This news was speedily carried to the king of Albania, who thereupon
sent unto him a second dog, stating that he should not make trial of his
courage with such insignificant animals, but rather with a lion or
elephant, and if he destroyed this one also, he need not expect to
obtain any other of this breed, as these two were all he possessed.
Tanta: suis petiere ultra fera semina sylvis,
Dat Venus accessus, et blando foedere jungit.
Tunc et mansuetis tuto ferus erat adulter
In stabulis, ultroque gravis succedere tigrim
Ausa canis, majore tulit de sanguine foetum.
'Gratii Falisci Cyneget.,' liv. 1. v. 160.
Alexander being much surprised, made immediate preparations for a trial,
and soon saw the lion prostrate, with his back broken, and his body torn
in pieces by the noble dog. Then he ordered an elephant to be produced;
and in no fight did he take more pleasure than in this. For the dog,
with his long, rough, shaggy hair, that covered his whole body, rushed
with open mouth, barking terribly, and thundering, as it were, upon the
elephant. Soon after he leaps and flies upon him, advancing and
retreating, now on one side, now on the other, maintaining an ingenious
combat; at one time assailing him with all vigour, at another shunning
him. So actively did he continue this artificial warfare, causing the
huge beast to turn around so frequently on every side to avoid his
attacks, that he ultimately came down with a crash that "made the earth
tremble with his fall". Book viii. chap. 40.
The Molossian dogs were at a later period much esteemed by the Romans as
watch dogs, not only of their dwellings, but also to guard their flocks
against the incursions of wild animals. Horace, in the following lines,
passes a just tribute to the worth of this animal, when referring to his
watchfulness, and the ardour with which he pursues those wild animals,
even 'per altas nives,' that threaten the flocks entrusted to his care.
"Quid immerentes, hospites vexas canis,
Ignarus adversum lupos?
Quin huc inanes, si potes, vertis minas,
Et me remorsurum petis?
Nam, qualis aut Molossus, aut fulvus Lacon,
Amica vis pastoribus,
Agam per altas aure sublatâ nives,
Quaecunpue praecedet fera."
'Epode' vi.--L.]
Ælian relates that one of them, and his owner, so much distinguished
themselves at the battle of Marathon, that the effigy of the dog was
placed on the same tablet with that of his master.
Soon after Britain was discovered, the 'pugnaces' of Epirus were pitted
against those of our island, and, according to the testimony of Gratius,
completely beaten. A variety of this class, but as large and as
ferocious, was employed to guard the sheep and cattle, or to watch at
the door of the house, or to follow the owner on any excursion of
business or of pleasure. Gratius says of these dogs, that they have no
pretensions to the deceitful commendation of form; but, at the time of
need, when courage is required of them, most excellent mastiffs are not
to be preferred to them.
The account of the British 'pugnaces' of former times, and also of the
'sagaces' and 'celeres', will be best given when treating of their
present state and comparative value. In describing the different breeds
of dogs, some anecdotes will be related of their sagacity and fidelity;
a few previous remarks, however, may be admissible.
A young man lost his life by falling from one of the precipices of the
Helvellyn mountains. Three months afterwards his remains were discovered
at the bottom of a ravine, and his faithful dog, almost a skeleton,
still guarding them. Sir Walter Scott beautifully describes the scene:
Dark-green was the spot, 'mid the brown mountain heather,
Where the pilgrim of nature lay stretched in decay;
Like the corpse of an outcast, abandoned to weather,
Till the mountain winds wasted the tenantless clay;
Nor yet quite deserted, though lonely extended,
For, faithful in death, his mute favourite attended,
The much loved remains of her master defended,
And chased the hill-fox and the raven away.
How long didst thou think that his silence was slumber?
When the wind waved his garments, how oft didst thou start?
How many long days and long weeks didst thou number
Ere he faded before thee, the friend of thy heart?
Burchell, in his Travels in Africa, places the connexion between man and
the dog, and the good qualities of this animal, in an interesting point
of view. A pack of dogs of various descriptions formed a necessary part
of his caravan, occasionally to provide him with food, but oftener to
defend him from wild beasts or robbers.
"While almost every other quadruped fears man as his most formidable
enemy," says this interesting traveller, "there is one who regards him
as his companion, and follows him as his friend. We must not mistake
the nature of the case. It is not because we train him to our use, and
have made choice of him in preference to other animals, but because
this particular species of animal feels a natural desire to be useful
to man, and, from spontaneous impulse, attaches himself to him. Were
it not so, we should see in various countries an equal familiarity
with other quadrupeds, according to their habits, and the taste or
caprices of different nations; but, everywhere, it is the dog only
that takes delight in associating with us, and in sharing our abode.
It is he who knows us personally, watches over us, and warns us of
danger. It is impossible for the naturalist not to feel a conviction
that this friendship between creatures so different from each other
must be the result of the laws of nature; nor can the humane and
feeling mind avoid the belief that kindness to those animals, from
which he derives continued and essential assistance, is part of the
moral duty of man.
"Often in the silence of the night, when all my people have been fast
asleep around the fire, have I stood to contemplate these faithful
animals watching by their side, and have learned to esteem them for
their social inclination towards mankind. When, wandering over
pathless deserts, oppressed with vexation and distress at the conduct
of my own men, I have turned to these as my only friends, and felt how
much inferior to them was man when actuated only by selfish views."
Of the stanchness and incorruptible fidelity of the dog, and his
disregard of personal inconvenience and want, when employed in our
service, it is impossible to entertain a doubt. We have sometimes
thought that the attachment of the dog to its master was increased, or,
at least, the exhibition of it, by the penury of the owner. At all
events one fact is plain enough, that, while poverty drives away from us
many a companion of our happier hours, it was never known to diminish
the love of our quadruped friend.
The early history of the dog has been described, and the abomination in
which he was held by the Israelites. At no great distance of time,
however, we find him, almost in the neighbourhood of Palestine, in one
of the islands of the Ionian Sea, the companion and the friend of
princes, and deserving their regard. The reader will forgive a somewhat
abbreviated account of the last meeting of Ulysses and his dog.
Twenty years had passed since Argus, the favourite dog of Ulysses, had
been parted from his master. The monarch at length wended his way
homewards, and, disguised as a beggar, for his life would have been
sacrificed had he been known, stood at the entrance of his palace-door.
There he met with an old dependant, who had formerly served him with
fidelity and who was yet faithful to his memory; but age and hardship
and care, and the disguise which he now wore, had so altered the
wanderer that the good Eumaeus had not the most distant suspicion with
whom he was conversing; but:
Near to the gates, conferring as they drew,
Argus the dog his ancient master knew,
And, not unconscious of the voice and tread
Lifts to the sound his ears, and rears his head.
He knew the lord, he knew, and strove to meet;
In vain he strove to crawl and kiss his feet;
Yet, all he could, his tail, his ears, his eyes
Salute his master, and confess his joys. [15]
[Lord Byron, who had much experience and acquaintance with the canine
family, was rather sceptical as regards the memory of this animal,
having been, on one occasion, entirely forgotten by a favourite dog from
whom he was separated some considerable time, and in fact was most
savagely assailed by him, when on his return he attempted to caress him
as he was wont to do in former times.
This unkind reception at Newstead Abbey, on the part of his pampered
pet, may have given rise to the poet's feelings as embodied in the
following misanthropic lines:--
"And now I'm in the world alone,
Upon the wide, wide sea:
But why should I for others groan,
When none will sigh for me?
Perchance my dog will whine in vain,
Till fed by stranger hands;
But long ere I come back again,
He'd tear me where he stands."--L.]
In Daniel's Rural Sports, the account of a nobleman and his dog is
given. The nobleman had been absent two years on foreign service. On his
return this faithful creature was the first to recognise him, as he came
through the court-yard, and he flew to welcome his old master and
friend. He sprung upon him; his agitation and his joy knew not any
bounds; and at length, in the fulness of his transport, he fell at his
master's feet and expired.
[An interesting circumstance, strongly exhibiting canine fidelity and
attachment in a large mastiff, came under the Editor's own eye during
his childhood, and which, from its striking character, deserves to be
recorded on the page of history as another testimony to the high moral
worth of these useful animals.
A gentleman of Baltimore, with his family, lived during a portion of the
year a short distance in the country, and was in the habit of returning
to the city late in the fall to pass the winter. On his estate there was
a fine young mastiff, who though extremely cross to strangers, exhibited
at all times a great degree of tenderness and affection for the younger
branches of the family;--more particularly for the younger son, his most
constant companion, and who would often steal secretly away to share his
daily meal with this affectionate participator in his childish sports:
or, when fatigued with romping together, would retire to the well-kept
kennel, and recruit his limbs in a refreshing sleep, while reclining
upon the body of the faithful dog. If the little truant should now be
missed by those having him in charge, the most natural question to ask
was, "Where is Rolla?" knowing full well that wherever this honest brute
was, there might his young master be found also. On such occasions,
however, this trusty guardian would refuse all solicitations to abandon
his post, and express great dissatisfaction at any attempt to arouse or
carry off his young charge, whom he continued to watch over till he
awoke, refreshed from his slumber and eager again to resume their
frolics.
The period of returning to the city at last arrived, and the dog
exhibited marked signs of uneasiness, while the bustling preparations
for this end were going on, as if conscious of the separation that was
about to take place between his young master and himself, as also the
other children, who had been his constant companions for so many joyful
months.
Everything being completed, the childish group bid an affectionate adieu
to the downcast Rolla, whom they left standing on the hill-top, watching
the carriage as it disappeared in the wood. A few days after their
departure, and when this poor animal was forgotten in the new scenes
around them, a communication was received from the overseer of the farm,
in which he stated that the favourite dog appeared much grieved since
the family had left for the city, and was fearful that he might die if
he continued in the same condition. Little attention, however, was given
to these remarks, all imagining that the dog's melancholy was only the
result of temporary distress, owing to his secluded life, so different
from that which he had led when surrounded by the various members of a
large family. Little did any one suppose that this poor neglected brute
was suffering the acutest pangs of mental distress, even sufficient to
produce death.
Two weeks had now elapsed since the separation from Rolla, when another
message came from the overseer, stating that the dog would surely die
with grief, if not removed to the city, as he had refused all sustenance
for several days, and did nothing but wander about from place to place,
formerly frequented by the children, howling and moaning in the most
piteous manner.
Orders were now given, much to the children's delight, for the
conveyance of the favourite to the city; but, alas! this arrangement
came too late, as the poor creature sank from exhaustion, while in the
wagon on his way to join those beloved companions whose short absence
had broken his heart and grieved him even unto death.--L.]
We will not further pursue this part of our subject at present. We shall
have other opportunities of speaking of the disinterested and devoted
affection which this noble animal is capable of displaying when he
occupies his proper situation, and discharges those offices for which
nature designed him. It may, however, be added that this power of
tracing back the dog to the very earliest periods of history, and the
fact that he then seemed to be as sagacious, as faithful, and as
valuable as at the present day, strongly favour the opinion that he
descended from no inferior and comparatively worthless animal,--that he
was not the progeny of the wolf, the jackal, or the fox, but he was
originally created, somewhat as we now find him, the associate and the
friend of man.
If, within the first thousand years after the Deluge, we observe that
divine honours were paid to him, we can scarcely be brought to believe
his wolfish genealogy. The must savage animals are capable of affection
for those to whom they have been accustomed, and by whom they have been
well treated, and therefore we give full credit to several accounts of
this sort related of the wolf, the lion, and even the cat and the
reptile: but in no other animal--in no other, even in the genus
'Canis'--do we find the qualities of the domestic dog, or the slightest
approach to them.
"To his master he flies with alacrity," says the eloquent Buffon, "and
submissively lays at his feet all his courage, strength, and talent. A
glance of the eye is sufficient; for he understands the smallest
indications of his will. He has all the ardour of friendship, and
fidelity and constancy in his affections, which man can have. Neither
interest nor desire of revenge can corrupt him, and he has no fear but
that of displeasing. He is all zeal and obedience. He speedily forgets
ill-usage, or only recollects it to make returning attachment the
stronger. He licks the hand which causes him pain, and subdues his
anger by submission. The training of the dog seems to have been the
first art invented by man, and the fruit of that art was the conquest
and peaceable possession of the earth."
"Man," says Burns, "is the God of the dog; he knows no other; and see
how he worships him. With what reverence he crouches at his feet--with
what reverence he looks up to him--with what delight he fawns upon
him, and with what cheerful alacrity he obeys him!"
If any of the lower animals bear about them the impress of the Divine
hand, it is found in the dog: many others are plainly and decidedly more
or less connected with the welfare of the human being; but this
connexion and its effects are limited to a few points, or often to one
alone. The dog, different, yet the same, in every region, seems to be
formed expressly to administer to our comforts and to our pleasure. He
displays a versatility, and yet a perfect unity of power and character,
which mark him as our destined servant, and, still more, as our
companion and friend. Other animals may be brought to a certain degree
of familiarity, and may display much affection and gratitude. There was
scarcely an animal in the menagerie of the Zoological Society that did
not acknowledge the superintendent as his friend; but it was only a
casual intercourse, and might be dissolved by a word or look. At the
hour of feeding, the brute principle reigned supreme, and the companion
of other hours would be sacrificed if he dared to interfere; but the
connexion between man and the dog, no lapse of time, no change of
circumstances, no infliction of evil can dissolve. We must, therefore,
look far beyond the wolf for the prototype of the dog.
Cuvier eloquently states that the dog exhibits the most complete and the
most useful conquest that man has made. Each individual is entirely
devoted to his master, adopts his manners, distinguishes and defends his
property, and remains attached to him even unto death; and all this
springing not from mere necessity, or from constrain, but simply from
gratitude and true friendship. The swiftness, the strength, and the
highly developed power of smelling of the dog, have made him a powerful
ally of man against the other animals; and, perhaps, these qualities in
the dog were necessary to the establishment of society. It is the only
animal that has followed the human being all over the earth.
There is occasionally a friendship existing between dogs resembling that
which is found in the human being. The author pledges himself as to the
accuracy of the following little anecdote. Two dogs, the property of a
gentleman at Shrewsbury, had been companions for many years, until one
of them died of old age. The survivor immediately began to manifest an
extraordinary degree of restless anxiety, searching for his old
associate in all his former haunts, and refusing every kind of food. He
gradually wasted away, and, at the expiration of the tenth day, he died,
the victim of an attachment that would have done honour to man.
The Dog, belongs to the division of animals termed VERTEBRATED, (see
'The Horse', 2d edition, page 106), because it has a cranium or skull,
and a spine or range of VERTEBRAE proceeding from it. It ranks under the
'class' MAMMALIA, because it has teats, by which the female suckles her
young; the 'tribe' UNGUICULATA, because its extremities are armed with
nails; the 'order' DIGITIGRADES, because it walks principally on its
toes. The 'genus' CANIS has two tubercular teeth behind the large
carnivorous tooth in upper jaw; and the 'sub-genus familiaris', the DOG,
has the pupils of the eye circular, while those of the wolf are oblique,
and those of the fox upright and long.
There has been some dispute whether the various species of dogs are of
different origin, or sprung from one common source. When we consider the
change that climate and breeding effect in the same species of dog, and
contrast the rough Irish or Highland greyhound with the smoother one of
the southern parts of Britain, or the more delicate one of Greece, or
the diminutive but beautifully formed one of Italy, or the hairless one
of Africa or Brazil--or the small Blenheim spaniel with the magnificent
Newfoundland; if also we observe many of them varied by accident, and
that accidental variety diligently cultivated into a new species,
altogether different in form or use, we shall find no difficulty in
believing that they might be derived from one common origin.
One of the most striking proofs of the influence of climate on the form
and character of this animal, occurs in the bull-dog. When transported
to India he becomes, in a few years, greatly altered in form, loses all
his former courage and ferocity, and becomes a perfect coward.
It is probable that all dogs sprang from one common source, but climate,
food, and cross-breeding caused variations of form, which suggested
particular uses; and these being either designedly or accidentally
perpetuated, the various breeds of dogs thus arose, and they have become
numerous in proportion to the progress of civilization. Among the ruder,
or savage tribes, they possess but one form; but the ingenuity of man
has devised many inventions to increase his comforts: he has varied and
multiplied the characters and kinds of domestic animals for the same
purpose, and hence the various breeds of horses, and cattle, and dogs.
The parent stock it is now impossible to trace; but the wild dog,
wherever found on the continent of Asia, or Northern Europe, has nearly
the same character, and bears no inconsiderable resemblance to the
British fox-dog, while many of those from the Southern Ocean can
scarcely be distinguished from the English lurcher. There is, however,
no more difficulty in this respect with regard to the dog, than any
other of our domesticated animals. Climate, or chance, produced a change
in certain individuals, and the sagacity of man, or, perhaps, mere
chance, founded on these accidental varieties numerous breeds possessed
of certain distinct characteristic properties. The degeneracy of the
dog, also, in different countries, cannot for a moment be disputed.
The most natural arrangement of all the varieties of the dog is
according to the development of the frontal sinus and the cerebral
cavity, or, in other words, the power of scent, and the degree of
intelligence. This classification originated with M.F. Cuvier, and has
been adopted by most naturalists. He reckoned three divisions of the dog:
I. Those having the head more or less elongated, and the parietal bones
of the skull widest at the base, and gradually approaching towards
each other as they ascend, the condyls of the lower jaw being on the
same line with the upper molar teeth. The _Greyhound_ and all its
varieties belong to this class.
II. The head moderately elongated, and the parietals diverging from each
other for a certain space as they rise upon the side of the head,
enlarging the cerebral cavity and the frontal sinus. To this class
belong our most valuable dogs,--the _Spaniel_, _Setter_, _Pointer_,
_Hound_, and the _Sheep-dog_.
III. The muzzle more or less shortened, the frontal sinus enlarged, and
the cranium elevated, and diminished in capacity. To this class
belong some of the _Terriers_, and a great many dogs that might
very well be spared.
This division of the different species of the dog is adopted here as
being the most simple, intelligible, and satisfactory.
[Footnote 1: Gen. iv. 2.]
[Footnote 2: Deut. xxiii. 18.]
[Footnote 3: In some of Belzoni's beautiful sketches of the frieze-work
of the old Egyptian temples, the dog appears, with his long ears and
broad muzzle, not unlike the old Talbot hound.]
[Footnote 4: Herodotus, lib. ii. c. 66.]
[Footnote 5: No dog was suffered to come within the precincts of the
Temple at Jerusalem. [Greek: Ex_o kunes] was a prevalent expression
among the Jews. Byrant's 'Mythology', vol. ii. p. 42.]
[Footnote 6: Phil. iii. 2.]
[Footnote 7: Rev. xxii. 15.]
[Footnote 8: Job xxx. 1. See also Isaiah lvi, 10, 11.]
[Footnote 9: Psalm lix. 6.]
[Footnote 10: Carpenter's 'Scripture Natural History', p.109. It is a
remarkable fact that from this faithful animal, the companion of man,
and the guardian of his person and property, should originate as many
terms of reproach as "dog," "cur," "hound," "puppy," "dog-cheap," "a
dog's trick," "dog sick," "dog-weary," "to lead the life of a dog," "to
use like a dog." All this probably originated in the East, where the dog
was held in abhorrence as the common scavenger of the streets.]
[Footnote 11: Arrian's 'Cynegeticus', cap 26.]
[Footnote 12: ''New Sporting Magazine, vol. xiv. p. 97.]
[Footnote 13: Oppian's 'Cynegeticus', lib. i. v. 468-480.]
[Footnote 14:
["At contrà faciles, magnique Lycaones armis.
Sed non Hyrcanæ satis est vehementia genti."]]
[Footnote 15: Pope's 'Odyssey', xvii.]
* * * * *