non-conformist divine Isaac Watts, produced perhaps the first
considerable didactic treatise on Study. I refer, of course, to his
well-known work entitled "The Improvement of the Mind"; on which, he
tells us, he was occupied at intervals for twenty years. It has two
Parts: one on the acquisition of knowledge; the other on Communication
or leaching. The scheme is a very wide one. Observation, Reading,
attending Lectures, Conversation,--are all included. To the word
"Study," Watts attaches a special meaning, namely Meditation and
Reflection, together with the control or regulation of all the exercises
of the mind. I doubt if this meaning is well supported by usage. At all
events it is not the signification that I propose to attach to the term.
Observation is an art in itself: so is Conversation, whether amicable or
contentious. The _proportions_ that these exercises should bear to
reading, would fairly claim a place in the complete Art of Study.
Watts has two short chapters on Books and Reading, containing sensible
remarks. He urges the importance of thorough mastery of select authors;
but assumes a power of discriminating good and bad beyond the reach of
a learner, and does not show how it is to be attained. He is very much
concerned all through as to the moral tone and religious orthodoxy of
the books read, he also reproves hasty and ill-natured judgments upon
the authors.
Watts's Essay is so pithily written, and so full of sense and propriety,
that it long maintained a high position in our literature; he tells us,
that it had become a text-book in the University. I do not know of any
better work on the same plan. A "Student's Guide," by an American named
Todd, was in vogue with us, some time ago; but anyone looking at its
contents, will not be sorry that it is now forgotten. It would not,
however, be correct to say that the subject has died out. If there have
not been many express didactic treatises of late, there has been an
innumerable host of small dissertations, in the form of addresses,
speeches, incidental discussions, leading articles, sermons--all
intended to guide both young and old in the path of useful study. What
to read, when to read, and how to read,--have been themes of many an
essay, texts of many a discourse. According as Education at large has
been more and more discussed, the particular province of self-education,
as here marked out, has had an ample share of attention from more or
less qualified advisers.
What we have got before us, then, is, first, to define our ground, and
then to appropriate and value the accumulated fruits of the labour
expended on it. I have already indicated how I would narrow the subject
of Study, so as to occupy a field apart, and not jumble together matters
that follow distinct laws. The theory of Education in general is the
theory of good Teaching: that is a field by itself, although many things
in it are applicable also to self-education. To estimate the values of
different acquisitions--Science, Language, and the rest, is good for
all modes of culture. The laws of the understanding in general, and of
the memory in particular, must be taken into account under every mode of
acquiring knowledge. Yet the alteration of circumstances, when a pupil
is carving out his own course, and working under his own free-will,
leads to new and distinct rules of procedure. Also, that part of
self-education consisting in the application to books is distinct from
the other forms of mental cultivation, namely, conversing, disputing,
original composition, and tutorial aid. Each of these has its own rules
or methods, which I do not mean to notice except by brief allusion.
In connection with the Plan of study, it is material to ask what the
individual is studying for. Each profession, each accomplishment, has
its own course of education. If book reading is an essential part, then
the choice of books must follow the line of the special pursuit. This is
obvious; but does not do away with the consideration of the best modes
of studying whatever books are suitable for the end. One man has to read
in Chemistry, another in Law, another in Divinity, and so on. For each
and all of these, there is a profitable and an unprofitable mode of
working, and the speciality of the matter is unessential.
[DIFFERENT ENDS OF STUDY.]
The more important differences of subject, involving differences of
method, are seen in such contrasted departments as Science and Language,
Thought and Style, Reality and Poetry, Generality and Particularity. In
applying the mind to these various branches, and in using books as the
medium of acquisition, there are considerable differences in the mode of
procedure. The study of a book of Science is not on the same plan as the
study of a History or a Poem. Yet even in these last, there are many
circumstances in common, arising out of the constitution of our
faculties and the nature of a verbal medium of communication of thought.
An art of Study in general should not presume to follow out in minute
detail the education of the several professions. There should still be,
for example, a distinct view of the training special in an Orator, on
which the ancients bestowed so much pains; there being no corresponding
course hitherto chalked out for a Philosopher as such, or even for a
Poet.
Next, there is an important distinction between studies for a
professional walk, and the studies of a man's leisure, with a view to
gratifying a special taste, or for the higher object of independent
thinking on all the higher questions belonging to a citizen and a man.
Both positions has its peculiarities; and an art of study should be
catholic enough to embrace them. To have the best part of the day for
study, and the rest for recreation and refreshment, is one thing: and to
study in by-hours, in snatches of time, and in holidays is quite another
thing. In the latter case, the choice of subjects, and the extent of
them, must be considerably different; while the consideration of the
best modes of economizing time and strength, and of harmonizing one's
life as a whole, is more pressing and more arduous. But, when the course
is chalked out, the details of study must conform to the general
conditions of all acquirements in knowledge through the instrumentality
of books.
One, and only one, more preliminary clearing. When an instructor
proceeds, as Milton in his school, or as James Mill with his son, by
prescribing to each pupil a mass of books to be read, with more or less
of examination as to their contents; in such a case, education from
without has passed into study in our narrow sense; and the procedure for
one situation is applicable to both. The two cases are equally in
contrast to educating by the direct instruction of the teacher. In so
far, however, as any teacher requires book study to co-operate with his
own addresses, to that extent do the methods laid down for private study
come into play.
Under every view, it is a momentous fact, that the man of modern times
has become a book-reading animal. The acquisition of knowledge and the
cultivation of the intellectual powers of the mind, form only a small
part of the use of books; although the part more properly named Study.
The moral tendencies are controlled; the emotions regulated; sympathy
with mankind, or the opposite, generated; pleasurable excitement
afforded. These other uses may be provided apart, as in our literature
of amusement, or they may be given in combination with the element of
knowledge, in which case they are apt to be a disturbing force,
rendering uncertain our calculations as to the efficacy of particular
modes of study.
* * * * *
The practical problem of Study is not to be approached by any high
_priori_ road; in other words, by setting out from abstract principles
as to the nature of the mind's receptivity and the operation of
book-reading upon that receptivity. A humbler line of approach will be
more likely to succeed.
There exist a number of received maxims on study, the result of many
men's experience and wisdom. Our endeavour will be to collect these,
arrange them in a methodical plan, so that they may give mutual aid, and
supply each other's defects. We shall go a little farther, and criticise
them according to the best available lights; and, when too vague or
sweeping, supply needful qualifications.
The Choice of Books, in the first instance, depends on the merits
attributed to them severally by persons most conversant with the special
department. In some degree, too, this choice is controlled by the
consideration of the best modes of study, as will soon be apparent.
* * * * *
[A TEXT-BOOK-IN-CHIEF.]
1. Our first maxim is--"Select a Text-book-in-chief". The meaning is,
that when a large subject is to be overtaken by book study alone, some
one work should be chosen to apply to, in the first instance, which work
should be conned and mastered before any other is taken up. There being,
in most subjects, a variety of good books, the thorough student will not
be satisfied in the long run without consulting several, and perhaps
making a study of them all; yet, it is unwise to distract the attention
with more than one, while the elements are to be learnt. In Geometry,
the pupil begins upon Euclid, or some other compendium, and is not
allowed to deviate from the single line of his author. If he is once
thoroughly at home on the main ideas and the leading propositions of
Geometry, he is safe in dipping into other manuals, in comparing the
differences of treatment, and in widening his knowledge by additional
theorems, and by various modes of demonstration.
In principle, the maxim is generally allowed. Nevertheless, it is often
departed from in practice. This happens in several ways.
[MILTON'S PLAN WITH HIS PUPILS.]
[KEEPING TO A SINGLE LINE OF THOUGHT.]
One way is exemplified in Milton's Tractate, already referred to. His
method of teaching any subject would appear to have been to take, the
received authors, and to read them one after another, probably according
to date; the reading pace, and degree of concentration, being apparently
equal all through. His six authors on Rhetoric were--Plato (select
Dialogues, of course), Aristotle, Phalereus, Cicero, Hermogenes,
Longinus. To read their several treatises through in the order named,
with equal attention, would undoubtedly leave in the mind a good many
thoughts on Rhetoric, but in a somewhat chaotic state. Much better would
it have been to have adopted a Text-book-in-chief, the choice lying
between Aristotle and Ouintilian (who comes in at a prior stage of the
Miltonic curriculum). The book so chosen would be read, and re-read; or
rather each chapter would be gone over several times, with appropriate
testing exercises and examinations. The other works might then be
overtaken and compared with the principal text-book; the judgment of
the pupil being so far matured, as to see what in them was already
superseded, and what might be adopted as additions to his already
acquired stock of ideas. Milton's views of education embraced the useful
to a remarkable degree; he was no pamperer of imagination and the
ornamental. His list of subjects might be said to be utility run
wild:--comprising the chief parts of Mathematics, together with
Engineering, Navigation, Architecture, and Fortification; Natural
Philosophy; Natural History; Anatomy, and Practice of Physic; Ethics,
Politics, Economics, Jurisprudence, Theology; a full course of the
Orators and Poets; Logic, Rhetoric, and Poetics. He tumbles out a whole
library of reading: but only in Ethics, does he indicate a leading or
preferential work; the half-dozen of classical books on the subject are
to be perused, "under the determinate sentence" of the scripture
authorities. With all this voracity for the useful, Milton had no
conception of scientific form, or method; and indeed, few of the
subjects had as yet passed the stage of desultory treatment; so that the
idea of casting the knowledge into some one form, under the guidance of
a chosen author, would never occur to him. Better things might have been
expected of James Mill, in conducting the education of his son. Yet we
find his plan to have been to require an even and exhaustive perusal of
nearly every book on nearly every subject, without singling out any one
to impart the best known form in each case. The disadvantage of the
process would be that, at first, all the writers were regarded as
profitable alike. Nevertheless, in the special subjects that he knew
himself, he gave his own instructions as the leading text, and his
pupil's knowledge took form according to these. In some cases, accident
gave a text-in-chief, as when young Mill at ten years of age, studied
Thomson's Chemistry, without the distraction of any other work. If there
had been half-a-dozen Chemical manuals in existence, he would probably
have read them all, and fared much worse. It happens, however, that,
in the more exact sciences, there is a greater sameness in the leading
ideas, than in Politics, Morals, or the Human Mind; and the evil of
distraction is so much smaller. Undoubtedly, the best of all ways of
learning anything is to have a competent master to dole out a fixed
quantity every day, just sufficient to be taken in, and no more; the
pupils to apply themselves to the matter so imparted, and to do nothing
else. The singleness of aim is favourable to the greatest rapidity of
acquirement; and any defects are to be left out of account, until one
thread of ideas is firmly set in the mind. Not unfrequently, however,
and not improperly, the teacher has a text-book in aid of his oral
instructions. To make this a help, and not a hindrance, demands the
greatest delicacy; the sole consideration being that the pupil must
be kept _in one single line of thought_, and never be required to
comprehend, on the same point, conflicting or varying statements.
Even the foot-notes to a work may have to be disregarded, in the first
instance. They may act like a second author, and keep up an irritating
friction. There is, doubtless, a consummate power of annotation that
anticipates difficulties, and clears away haze, without distracting the
mind. There is also an art of bringing out relief by an accompaniment,
like the two images of the stereoscope. This is most likely to arise
through a living teacher or commentator, who, by his tones and emphasis,
as well as by his very guarded and reserved additions, can make the
meaning of the author take shape and fulness.
As the chief text-book is chosen, among other reasons, for its method
and system, any defects on this head may be very suitably supplied,
during the reader's progress, by notes or otherwise. When the end is
clearly kept in view, we shall not go wrong as to the means: the spirit
will remedy an undue bias to the letter.
The subjects that depend for their full comprehension upon a certain
method and order of details, are numerous, and include the most
important branches of human culture. The Sciences, in mass, are avowedly
of this character: even such departments as Theology, Ethics, Rhetoric,
and Criticism have their definite form; and, until the mind of the
student is fully impressed with this, all the particulars are vague and
chaotic, and comparatively useless for practical application. So, any
subject cast in a _polemic_ form must be received and held in the
connection thereby given to it. If the arguments _pro_ and _con_ fall
out of their places in the mind of the reader, their force is missed or
misconceived.
History is pre-eminently a subject for method, and, therefore, involves
some such plan as is here recommended. Every narrative read otherwise
than for mere amusement, as we read a novel, should leave in the
mind--(1) the Chronological sequence (more or less detailed); and (2)
the Causal sequence, that is, the influences at work in bringing about
the events. These are best gained by application to a single work in the
first place; other works being resorted to in due time.
Of the non-methodical subjects, forming an illustrative contrast,
mention may be made of purely didactic treatises, where the precepts are
each valuable for itself, and by itself: such as, until very recently,
the works on Agriculture, and even on Medicine. A book of Domestic
Receipts, consulted by index, is not a work for study.
Poems and fictitious narrations will naturally be regarded as of the
un-methodical class. If there are exceptions, they consist of long
poems--Epics and Dramas--whose plan is highly artistic, and must be felt
in order to the full effect. Probably, however, this is the merit that
the generality of readers are content to miss, especially if greater
strain of attention is needed to discover it. Readers bent on enjoyment
dwell on the passing page, and are not inclined to carry with them what
has gone before, in order to understand what is to follow.
[REPUDIATION OF METHOD BY MEN OF REPUTE.]
Very intelligent and superior men have wholly repudiated the notion of
study by method. We must not lay too much stress upon these disclaimers,
seeing that they are usually cited from those in advanced years, or men
whose day of methodical education is passed. When Johnson said--"A man
ought to read just as inclination leads him," he was not thinking of
beginners, for whom he would probably have dictated a different course.
Still, it is a prevailing tendency of many minds, to read all books
equally, provided the interest or enjoyment of them is equal. Macaulay,
Sir William Hamilton, De Quincey, as well as Johnson, and a numerous
host besides, were book-gluttons, books in breeches; they imbibed
information copiously, and also retained it, but as a matter of chance.
The enjoyment of their life was to read; whereas, to master thoroughly a
considerable field of knowledge, can never be all enjoyment. Gibbon was
a book devourer, but he had a plan; he was organizing a vast work of
composition. Macaulay, also, showed himself capable of realizing a
scheme of composition; both his History and his Speeches have the stamp
of method, even to the pitch of being valuable as models. Hamilton and
De Quincey, each in his way, could form high ideals of work, and in part
execute them; but their productiveness suffered from too much bookish
intoxication. While readers generally mix the motive of instruction with
stimulation, the class that seek instruction solely is but small; the
other extreme is frequent enough.
[DIFFICULTY IN CHOOSING A FIRST TEXT-BOOK.]
In many subjects, the difficulties of fixing upon the proper Text-book
are not inconsiderable. The mere reputation of a book may be great, and
well-founded; and yet the merits may not be of the kind that fits it for
the commencing student. Such conditions as the following must be taken
into account. The Form or Method should be of a high order: this we
shall have occasion to illustrate under the next head. It should be
abreast: of the time, on its own subject. It should be moderately full,
without being necessarily exhaustive in detail. It is on this point that
the cheap primers of the present day are mainly defective. They state
general ideas, and lay down outlines; but they do not provide
sufficiently expanded illustration to stamp these on the mind of the
learner. A shilling primer is really a more advanced book than one on a
triple scale, that should embrace the same compass of leading ideas.
As a farther condition, the work chosen should not have so much of
individuality as to fail in the character of representing the prevailing
views. The greatest authors often err on this point; and, while a work
of genius is not to be neglected, it may, for this reason, have to take
the second place in the order of study. Newton's _Principia_ could never
be a work suited for an early stage of mathematical study. Lyell's
Geology has been a landmark in the history of the subject; but it is not
cast in the form for a beginner in Geology. It is, in its whole plan,
argumentative; setting up and defending a special thesis in Geology; the
facts being arrayed with that view. Many other great works have assumed
a like form; such are Malthus on Population, Grove's Correlation of
Physical Forces, Darwin's Origin of Species. Even expressly didactic
works are often composed more to bring forward a peculiar view, than
from the desire to develop a subject in its due proportions. Locke's
Essay on the Understanding does not propose to give a methodical and
exhaustive handling of the Powers of the Mind, or even of the Intellect.
That was reserved for Reid.
The question as between old writers and new, would receive an easy
solution upon such grounds as the foregoing, were it not for the
sentiment of veneration for the old, because they are old. If an ancient
writer retains a place by virtue of surpassing merits, as against all
subsequent writers, his case is quite clear. In the nature of things,
this must be rare: if there be an example, it is Euclid; yet his
position is held only through the mutual jealousy of his modern rivals.
The only motive for commencing a study upon a very old writer is a
desire to work out a subject historically; which, in some instances may
be allowed, but not very often. In Politics, Ethics, and Rhetoric, the
plan might have its advantages; but, with this imperative condition,
that we shall follow out the development in the modern works. In
proportion as a subject assumes a scientific shape, it must carefully
define its terms, marshal its propositions in proper dependence, and
offer strict proof of all matters of fact; now, in these respects, every
known branch of knowledge has improved with the lapse of ages; so that
the more recent works are necessarily the best for entering upon the
study. A historical sequence may be proper to be observed; but that
should be backward and not forward. The earlier stages of some subjects
are absolutely worthless; as, for example, Physics, Chemistry, and most
of Biology, in other subjects, as Politics and Ethics, the tentatives of
such men as Plato and Aristotle have an undying value; nevertheless, the
student should not begin, but end, with them.
* * * * *
There is an extreme form of putting our present doctrine that runs it
into paradox: namely, the one-book-and-no-more maxim. Scarcely any book
in existence is so all-sufficient for its purpose that a student is
better occupied in re-reading it for the tenth time, than in reading
some others once. Even the merits of the one book are not fully known
unless we compare it with others; nor have we grasped any subject unless
we are able to see it stated in various forms, without being distracted
or confused. It is not a high knowledge of horsemanship that can be
gained by the most thorough acquaintance with one horse.
[NO WORK ENTIRELY SELF-SUFFICIENT.]
Any truth that there is in the paradox of excluding all books but one
from perusal, belongs to it as a form of the maxim we have now been
considering. There is not in existence a work corresponding to the
notion of absolute self-sufficiency. Suppose we were to go over the
_chef-d'oeuvres_ of human genius, we should not find one in the position
of entire independence of all others. Take, for example, the poems of
Homer; the Republic and a few other of Plato's pre-eminent Dialogues;
the great speeches of Demosthenes; the Ethics and Politics of Aristotle;
the poems of Dante; Shakespeare, as a whole; Bacon's Novum Organum;
Newton's Principia; Locke on the Understanding; the _Méchanique Céleste_
of Laplace. No one of all these could produce its effect on the mind
without referring to other works, previous, contemporary, or following.
The remark is not confined to works of elucidation and comment
merely--as the contemporary history of Greece, or the speeches of
Demosthenes--but extends to other compositions, of the very same tenor,
by different, although inferior, writers. Shakespeare himself is made
much more profitable by a perusal of the other Elizabethans, and by a
comparison with dramatic models before and after him.