We may well be proud of the fact that our country was the first to open
the empire of Japan to the free intercourse which, in common with the
rest of the world, we now enjoy with that formerly mysterious country.
In former years the Dutch, Portuguese, English, and others had a
limited intercourse with the Japanese, but were cut off from that, and,
with the exception of the Dutch, entirely expelled from the country two
centuries and a half ago. The Dutch alone, of all Christian nations,
were allowed to remain for the purposes of traffic, “and they purchased
the privilege at the price of national humiliation and personal
imprisonment, for which all the profits of gainful barter offer but an
inadequate compensation.”
This self-isolated empire, Japan, has experienced more radical and
startling changes within the last generation than any people or nation
of which history treats. It seemed as if, once freed from the trammels
which had so long confined it, the empire was determined, at one bound,
to place itself abreast of other nations which had attained a high
civilization and enlightenment by slow and painful steps. With a wealth
of the best models before them, and the intelligence to be able to
throw off their prejudices and avail themselves of those models, the
feat was easier, but still remains wonderful, the more we consider it.
Situated at the eastern extremity of Asia, between 31° and 49° north
latitude, the empire consists of a large group of islands, many of them
small and surrounded by a sea which is not very easy to navigate at all
times.
There are three very large islands--Niphon, or Nippon, seven hundred
miles long, but so narrow that its breadth in the centre is not more
than fifty miles; Kiusiu, about two hundred miles long and fifty miles
wide; and Yesso, formerly sometimes called Xicoco, eighty-five or
ninety miles long and fifty wide.
There are many mountains, some of them volcanic, and the country is
subject to earthquakes, often of a serious character.
The number of inhabitants is given as about forty millions; but it is
said by late observers that, dense as the population appears to be in
certain regions, the country could support many more.
The Japanese appear to be a mixture of the Malay and Mongolian races,
like the Chinese, from whom there seems little doubt they derived their
civilization, ages ago.
The first knowledge of Japan which the Western world had was given
by the Venetian traveller, Marco Polo, at the end of the thirteenth
century. When he returned from a long sojourn in Asia he was hardly
believed when he spoke of a large island off the coast of Cathay, or
China, which he called Zipangu. That island is the modern Nippon.
There is no doubt that Marco Polo’s written story and accompanying
maps had much to do with the determination of Columbus to find the
farthest east by sailing west. Although he was not able to find and
open Japan, he did discover a country which has performed a part of
his contemplated work--a nation which, if it did not discover Zipangu,
was to become the instrument of bringing it into free and full
communication with the rest of the world.
It is to the Portuguese that we owe the first real knowledge of Japan.
When Mendez Pinto, on a voyage to China in 1542, was driven by a storm
to Japan and landed there, the event was considered so important by
the authorities of that isolated country that they not only entered it
in their archives, but preserved portraits of persons who seemed most
strange to them in complexion, features, dress, and language.
The authorities and the visitors were so much pleased with each other
that an arrangement was entered into by which a Portuguese ship was
to be yearly despatched--probably from Macao--laden with articles of
trade. The returns were made in gold, silver, and copper, of which
latter metal there was abundance in Japan.
Then came the establishment of a mission under Francis Xavier,
afterwards canonized by the Catholic Church, and a man of wonderful
ability and with all the requisites for a Christian missionary of his
time. He and his assistants did not meddle with Japanese affairs or
politics, soon made friends, and many converts; but St. Francis Xavier
died in 1552, and his successors were not so wise or so Christian-like
as he had been. They differed among themselves and meddled with matters
which did not concern them. The Franciscans and Dominicans quarrelled
with the Jesuits, but they obtained, among them, a very large number of
converts, among whom were numbered some of the princes or feudal lords.
The Dutch came next in establishing a footing in Japan, about 1598.
One of their first vessels had an English pilot named William Adams,
who has left us a narration of his long residence there--a romantic
story, but which can only be alluded to here. He arose to high
distinction, and, among other things, instructed the Japanese in the
art of ship-building and mathematics.
An English factory was established at Hirado in 1613, but the
enterprise was soon abandoned.
All went well with the Portuguese until about the year 1617, when a
revolution occurred in Japan which placed in power those who were
hostile to both foreign traders and to missionaries. This revolution
had a fatal effect upon the Portuguese influence, especially as they
had, as has been said, showed imprudence in mingling in the politics
of the country, while their ambassador exhibited great pride and
haughtiness, in marked contrast with the Dutch. The latter, attending
strictly to their mercantile transactions and moved by hatred and
jealousy of their rivals, the Portuguese, took good care to give the
assurance that they themselves were of a different creed from the
Jesuits.
When, therefore, in 1637, the Portuguese--traders, missionaries, and
all--were banished from the country, after many persecutions and much
bloodshed, the Dutch were allowed to keep up an intercourse, but under
severe restrictions.
Once rid of the Portuguese, there then began a persecution of the
native Christians, which continued for many years, during which it is
said that several millions suffered for their faith. The number sounds
large, but all accounts agree in regard to it.
Then the Dutch fell under suspicion, for several good reasons, and were
only permitted to remain at all on condition of residing at one spot,
where they could be guarded and every motion observed. In 1641 they
were ordered to remove to Dezima, a small island near Nagasaki, which
Kæmpfer said “was more like a prison than a factory.” But, unwilling
to quit the prospect of profitable trade, they willingly underwent
this imprisonment and agreed to forego any of the outward signs of
Christianity, such as leaving off divine service, etc.
The island Dezima is shaped like a fan, and is very small, only about
six hundred by two hundred and fifty feet, and mostly of artificial
construction. It was connected with the town of Nagasaki by a bridge,
on which there was always a strong guard. The whole island was
surrounded by a high fence with iron spikes. No stone houses were
permitted to be built, and the interpreters, clerks, and servants were
spies, whom the Dutch were obliged to pay. The few ships allowed to
come annually were searched and their arms and powder taken away. “A
more annoying and thorough system of imprisonment and espionage was
never devised.”
Although subject to this oppression and contumely, the Dutch continued
their trade--one or two ships going from Batavia every year--until
Japan was thrown open to the world by means of the action of the
American expedition of 1853. But before speaking of that expedition we
must allude to the idea which has been extensively entertained that
there were formerly, and until quite recently, two Emperors at the
same time in Japan. This erroneous idea was conceived in this way.
About the year 1200, of our era, the then Emperor created a supreme
general, called Shógun. Each Shógun owed allegiance to the Emperor, and
was invested by him, but his position as supreme head of the military
organization, which gave him immense influence with the powerful nobles
or feudal lords, made him almost the equal of the sovereign. Several
years after Japan had been opened to the world and treaties made with
many nations, in 1868, the Shógun’s power was shattered during a war
which might be denominated a revolution. Military domination was swept
away and the Mikado reinstated in his position of supreme authority.
In that year the powerful Tokugawa clan, and others who supported the
Shógun, were overcome by the great clans of Satsuma, Choshin, and Tosa,
and a powerful northern opposition was put down by the Mikado’s forces.
It is a curious fact that the Stonewall Jackson, an ironclad, took
part in this war. She had been built in France for the Confederates,
taken to Havana, and then claimed by our government as a spoil of war.
She was sold by the United States to Japan, and taken out there and
delivered by one of our naval officers.
And now to relate some of the events in Japan in which our country was
most concerned.
In 1831 our first effort at intercourse began. A Japanese junk which
had been blown off their coast had drifted about the Pacific for a long
time, and at length went ashore near the mouth of the Columbia River.
Her crew were kindly treated and sent to China, whence they were sent,
on board an American merchant ship, the Morrison, to Japan. People were
not then aware of a Japanese law which prohibited the return of any
Japanese who had left their country. At any rate, it was an errand of
mercy. When the Morrison entered Jeddo Bay the Japanese, finding she
was unarmed, fired at her with shotted guns, and she was forced to go
to Kagosima. Meeting the same reception there, she returned to Macao
with the shipwrecked Japanese on board.
Complaints having multiplied that American seamen wrecked on the
coast of Japan had been harshly treated by the authorities of that
country--which was very true, for the writer was a shipmate of one who
had been so treated, and often talked with him of his adventures--our
government was anxious to make a treaty which would provide that
such unfortunates should be kindly treated, and also that American
vessels in distress should be able to enter Japanese ports for needed
supplies. So Commodore Biddle, with the Columbus, of 90 guns, and the
sloop-of-war Vincennes, of 20 guns, entered the Bay of Jeddo, in 1846.
The ships were at once surrounded by guard boats--four hundred of them.
The ships remained ten days, but no one belonging to them landed, and
an application for license to trade was met by the answer: “No trade
can be allowed with any foreign nation but Holland.”
The next attempt was in 1849, when the United States sloop-of-war
Preble, Commander Glynn, was sent to inquire as to the detention in
Japan of sixteen American seamen who had been shipwrecked on the coast
of the islands. As the Preble approached Nagasaki harbor she was
surrounded by boats and warned off. But the ship stood in with a fair
breeze, and anchored in spite of them. Troops were hurriedly gathered
and heavy batteries erected on the elevated shores, all bearing upon
the ship. But Commander Glynn persisted, in spite of threats and
subterfuge, demanding the prisoners and saying that the government
meant to protect its citizens and means would be at hand to enforce its
demands. Afterwards he sent word that the men must be delivered to him
in two days’ time; and then the Japanese, finding him in earnest, gave
them up. They had been very cruelly treated. Other attempts than those
we have mentioned were made at different times, without success, by
other nations, the English and the Russians especially.
Commodore Perry’s successful expedition left the United States in
November, 1852, several vessels intending to join it being already in
Chinese ports.
It was well known that our government contemplated such an expedition,
and it had been the subject of much comment in several European
countries more immediately concerned. The general opinion was that
the mission would, like the many others which had been attempted by
various powers, prove fruitless, from the prejudices and obstinacy
of the Japanese. But they did not reckon upon the great tact, skill,
and firmness which were to be displayed in the accomplishment of this
difficult task. The President’s letter was presented on July 14th,
1853, when the squadron left with a promise to return next season for
an answer. On March 31st, 1854, a treaty of peace and amity, providing
especially for the protection of American sailors, was signed.
In June, 1857, a new treaty was made at Simoda, by Townsend Harris,
American Consul-General to Japan, who succeeded in the next year in
reaching Jeddo in spite of opposition, where he negotiated a third
treaty, covering many more points than the first ones.
Other nations soon followed us in making treaties, until Japan was in
full intercourse with the world at large.
It is impossible, here, to give more than a sketch of the many
interesting incidents of Perry’s first visit, but we will endeavor to
give a few points.
On the 7th of July, 1853, the Susquehanna and the Mississippi,
paddle-wheel frigates, with the Plymouth and the Saratoga,
sloops-of-war, entered the Bay of Yedo, the sailing sloops-of-war
being in tow of the steamers, and the crews of the junks which were
overhauled showed every evidence of surprise at the sight of the first
steamships they had ever seen, taking to their oars and sweeps and
hastily getting out of their course. At 5 o’clock in the afternoon
the squadron anchored off the city of Uraga, and from their position
distinctly saw the sacred mountain, Fusiyama, although it was at a
distance of about sixty miles. Previous to anchoring a number of guard
boats were observed coming off, and, contrary to the practice permitted
during the visit of the Columbus, the Commodore determined to exclude
casual visitors, so that they were not permitted even to make fast
their boats to the ships, much less to come on board--a proceeding
which seemed to anger the Japanese officials, but had a good effect in
the end. Soon after an official came to warn the ships off, and he made
signs to have the gangway ladder of the flag-ship lowered for him. But
the interpreter told him that the Commodore was a very high officer of
his government, and that he would receive no one but a functionary of
the highest rank, and was asked why the Governor himself did not come
off. He replied that he was forbidden by law to do so, and asked that
he (the speaker, who was Vice-Governor,) should be received. After some
delay this was done, but he only saw the Commodore’s aide, who told
him that the Commodore’s intentions were perfectly friendly, and that
he brought a letter from the President of the United States addressed
to the Emperor. The Japanese official insisted that the ships must go
to Nagasaki and there deliver the letter, as that was the only place,
under their law, for the transaction of business with foreigners. He
was told that the Commodore would not go to Nagasaki, but expected to
be duly and properly received where he was, near Yedo, and intimated
that force might be used to deliver the message with which he was
charged. He was prepared to meet the Japanese on their own ground and
imitate their own policy. The result was that the squadron was left
free from all annoyance, an event unprecedented in the intercourse of
Japan with foreign ships for two centuries.
There were a good many forts and batteries to be seen on the shore,
however, and every precaution was taken against a sudden attack,
especially as bodies of soldiers could be seen moving about. But the
next day the Governor of the city appeared and came on board. Being an
official of the third rank, however, the Commodore would not personally
meet him. The Governor still insisted upon the ships leaving there
and going to Nagasaki, and was again told that they would deliver the
letter there, as the nearest point to the capital. At a later interview
he was informed that unless an answer was given in three days, and
the business which had brought the squadron there was arranged at the
present visit, the Commodore would be obliged to return with a larger
force, and, as Uraga was an unsafe anchorage, he should go much nearer
to Yedo.
It would take many pages to give all the arguments for delay offered by
the Japanese; but the firmness of Perry, who had not been personally
seen--as too exalted a person--at last gained the day. The Emperor
consented to have a meeting of high officers deputized by him and
Commodore Perry in a house built for the purpose, on shore, where the
letters could be formally exchanged. All the officers of the squadron
who could be spared accompanied the Commodore, in full uniform, and
a large force of marines and sailors, under arms, formed a guard of
honor. The United States flag and the Commodore’s pennant were borne
in front by two stalwart seamen, and two boys, appropriately dressed,
bore, in an envelope of scarlet cloth, the President’s letter and the
Commodore’s credentials.
After long ceremonial conversations, everything was settled pleasantly,
and an answer promised upon the return of the squadron the next spring.
On the 12th of the following February, Perry returned for his answer.
The Japanese were quite friendly, and the squadron, of three steamers
and four sailing men-of-war, anchored about twelve miles beyond the
town of Uraga and about twenty miles from the capital city, Yedo. Even
then the Japanese tried to change the place of meeting, but without
success, for the Americans persisted in having it at that place, which
is now known as Yokohama. Here a fine building was erected as a “Treaty
House,” and, on the 8th of March, 1854, Perry landed in state for the
second time, and on that and the following days conferences were held
and handsome presents interchanged. Among arms, implements, wines, and
other things, was a small locomotive and tender, with a passenger car,
and enough rails to form a track. The Japanese Government sent to the
President a great quantity of things peculiar to the country, and all
ended in a good understanding and the granting of the demands of the
American Government.
Thus, not within the lifetime, but _within the naval lifetime_ of the
writer, has a nation emerged from complete isolation and become so
powerful as to challenge and successfully meet in battle a neighboring
nation, some of the provinces of which contain as many inhabitants as
the whole of Japan.
No matter what may be the result of the war which is now going on, it
is certain that none of the great Western nations which have hitherto
controlled, more or less directly, the course of events in the extreme
East, will in future venture to take political steps without reckoning
Japan as a first-class power. Her resources, military and naval, are
present, while those of the Western nations must be transported halfway
round the world to reach them.
Before war was actually proclaimed the ships of China and Japan had two
or three conflicts on the Korean coast, one of which involved quite
a battle, and the destruction of a small Chinese cruiser which was
protecting the landing of Chinese troops, from transports, on the coast
of Korea. The second was the sinking of the Kow-Shing, which steamer,
in spite of her Chinese name, was an English vessel, and one of the
fastest and best employed in the Chinese coast trade.
When the news of the sinking of the Kow-Shing, which took place on the
25th of July, first appeared, there was great bluster in the English
papers about holding Japan responsible; but, when the true facts came
to light all this talk quickly died away, as it was clearly seen that
the Japanese were within their own right in preventing the landing
of their enemy’s troops in Korea. Of their merciless treatment of
the Chinese when struggling in the water a difference of opinion may
probably be held.
The “Kow-Shing incident” was as follows:--This vessel, of about 1400
tons, had a crew of Chinese, but the captain, the three mates, and
three engineers were Englishmen. She was chartered by the Chinese
government, by the month, for military purposes. Toward the end of July
she took on board twelve hundred Chinese troops, with two generals, and
their body-guards, of about one hundred and fifty men.
War was not formally declared, but two other Chinese troop ships
trying to land men, and under escort of men-of-war, accomplished their
purpose, but an action succeeded between the convoying vessels and
some Japanese cruisers, in which one of the Chinese ships suffered
great loss, and was set on fire. Her commander ran her on shore, where
she shortly blew up.
The Japanese succeeded in intercepting the Kow-Shing, and determined to
force her to return without landing the troops she had on board.
But one of the Chinese cruisers, the Tsi-Yuen, accompanying the two
which had landed troops, observing the Japanese cruiser Naniwa taking
note of the operation, is said to have approached the Naniwa with the
Japanese flag flying and suddenly opened fire upon her, as evidence of
which an officer of the Kow-Shing was shown a shell, which happily did
not explode, in the ward-room of the Naniwa. “What happened afterwards
was probably done, at least in part, as retaliation for this act of
fighting under false colors.”
On July 25th at 8 o’clock in the morning, the Kow-Shing, with the
Chinese troops on board, sighted the Naniwa, which signalled her
to stop and then to anchor; she did so, and then signalled “Can we
proceed?” As an answer to this the Japanese cruiser sent a boat,
with an armed crew and two officers, who proceeded to the captain’s
cabin, where they examined the ship’s papers. They were told that the
Kow-Shing was a British steamer, with the British Consul’s clearance,
flying the British flag, and that war had not been declared when she
left port.
Major Von Hanneken, the German officer in Chinese employ, told the
Chinese generals what had passed, and the latter said they had rather
die where they were, and said that if the British officers attempted
to leave the Kow-Shing they would be killed by their body-guard. The
English captain tried his hardest to show them how useless it was
to resist the Naniwa, but without success. By this time the boat had
returned to the Naniwa, and the latter signalled, “weigh, cut or slip,
wait for nothing” meaning that the English captain was to carry his
ship back to the place whence she had come, and not attempt to land the
generals and their troops in Korea. If they had obeyed the order there
would have been no loss of property or life. But the Chinese would not
allow the captain to move, and threatened death again if he did so. The
Naniwa then steamed abeam of the Kow-Shing, on the port side, about 500
yards off. Then she blew her whistle, ran a red flag up to her foremast
head, and discharged a torpedo, which however fell short. Immediately
afterward, seeing that the torpedo had missed, the Naniwa fired a
broadside which hulled the Kow-Shing, which keeled over to starboard
and immediately began to sink.
The English officers at once jumped overboard, and began to swim for
the land, through swarms of Chinamen, dead or drowning. Bullets were
striking on every side. They came from the Chinese soldiers who were
herded on the only part of the Kow-Shing left above water. Then the
Englishmen swam toward the Naniwa, and after being a long time in the
water were picked up by her boats. By this time only the Kow-Shing’s
masts were visible, and two of her boats, while crowds of Chinese in
the water were swimming about. The officer of the Japanese cutter which
had picked up the Englishmen said he was ordered to sink the boats. He
did fire at them and then returned to the Naniwa without picking up any
of the Chinese. The next day the Naniwa joined the rest of the Japanese
fleet, and the Englishmen were sent by despatch boat to Japan, where
they were set at liberty a few days afterwards.
The Chinese and Japanese have for ages been in communication,
mercantile and otherwise, but there has always, so far as history goes,
been an underlying hostility in the feelings of the two nations. These
feelings have been aggravated by collisions at various periods in
regard to sovereignty, and the commercial intercourse with the Loo-choo
Islands, as well as in regard to Formosa, a very large and immensely
valuable possession for the nation which may be fortunate enough to
hold it. At present the greater part of the island is in the possession
of native clans, and the Chinese control the country for only a short
distance inland, upon the southwestern portion mostly.
Then again, China and Japan have been at difference for a long time in
regard to the Korean territory, over which China has always claimed a
jurisdiction, which however she has not practically exercised, except
by intriguing in the state affairs of the country and demanding acts
of vassalage. When Japan, whose interests in her neighbors are very
important, protested against Chinese intrigue and influence, she was
received with ill-disguised contempt. Upon war being declared by Japan,
the Emperor of China and his advisers, not recognizing the forward
state of preparation of the Japanese, is said to have ordered his
military and naval commanders to “exterminate the Japanese vermin.” How
far the effort at “extermination” went, the whole world now knows.
Japan solemnly declared, in a diplomatic note, that her whole object
in the war was to settle and secure once for all the separation and
independence of Korea. Of course, if successful, she would demand
compensation for the immense outlay incurred in her campaigns by land
and sea; and, while not approaching the sum paid by France to Germany
at the close of the Franco-German war, it will be very large indeed,
and one which will hamper the Chinese government for a generation to
come, as their fiscal methods do not readily lend themselves to such an
emergency.