Philippi, the decisive battle between Octavius and Brutus and Cassius,
took place B. C. 42. Octavius, who afterward assumed the name of
Augustus, is very differently described by historians. It is said
that he did not fight at Philippi; and he is called a coward by some
writers, who declare that he was always sick on critical days. Be that
as it may, it seems certain that Antony fought that battle, although
Octavius got the credit of success with the Roman public, which
soon endowed him with every quality which goes to make the title of
“August,” which title he was the first to bear; being the favorite of
the citizens, much more by reason of his ancestry, and by the judicious
bestowal of offices and of money, than by feats of arms.
After their victory at Philippi, Antony and Octavius divided the
empire of the world between them. But the two were devoured by an
equal ambition; and, although a common danger had for a time lulled
their mutual suspicion and dislike, and forced them to act in unison,
harmony between them could not long continue. Neither of them wished
to share empire, and each was determined that the other, sooner or
later, should be forced to renounce power, if not life itself. The
repudiation of Octavia the sister of Octavius, by Antony, added
increased fuel to the fires of hatred, and we learn from contemporary
writers that clear-sighted persons not only foresaw that a death
struggle between the two great leaders was only a question of time,
but they predicted the result, as Antony, in the midst of feasts and
other dissipation, was fast losing that activity of mind and body which
had brought him his successes, and had, in former days, gained him the
esteem and confidence of Cæsar.
While Antony was placing his laurels and his renown under the feet of
an Egyptian queen, the cool and astute Octavius, never losing sight of
the end he had in view, turned to his own aggrandizement and elevation,
in the estimation of the Roman people, Antony’s disgraceful conduct.
The future Augustus, with the full consent of the Senate, raised fresh
legions in Italy, equipped a fleet, and made every preparation for an
enterprise upon which was to depend the control of the whole civilized
world.
As if Antony had taken pains to furnish his already too powerful
rival with the pretexts which should serve as a mask to his ambitious
views, the former caused general disgust and indignation at Rome by
dismembering the Empire--so to speak--in the interests of Cleopatra,
whom he proclaimed Queen of Cyprus, Cilicia, Cœlesyria, Arabia and
Judea; while he gave to the two sons whom he had had by her the title
of “King of Kings.” This insane defiance of the susceptibility and
pride of the Republic was one of the principal causes of Antony’s
destruction. People ceased to fear him when they learned that he
had become habitually intemperate; and they no longer saw in him a
redoubtable and successful Roman general, but an Eastern Satrap,
plunged in pleasure and debauchery.
Octavius, affecting rather contempt than anger at Antony’s proceedings,
declared war against Cleopatra only, and seemed to regard Antony as
already deprived of the power and majesty which he had sullied in
committing them to the hands of the Egyptian queen.
Octavius could only raise on the Italian peninsula, then exhausted by
civil war, 80,000 legionaries, with 12,000 cavalry, and two hundred
and fifty ships--a small force to oppose to the five hundred ships
and 120,000 men of Antony, without counting the allied troops which
his rival was able to bring against him. But, more active and daring
than Antony, he had, with astonishing celerity, collected his forces,
and crossed the Ionian Sea, while Antony was lingering in Samos, and
indulging in all sorts of debasing pleasures, with little thought
devoted to preparation for the inevitable and momentous struggle.
At last the imminence of the danger awoke him to the realities
surrounding him, and he brought forward his powerful fleet, anchoring
it near the promontory of Actium, in Epirus, ready to oppose the
advance of Octavius.
His ships were double in number those of the Romans, well armed and
equipped, but heavy, and badly manned, so that their manœuvres did not
compare in celerity with those of the western fleet.
Although Octavius had fewer ships and fewer men, those which he had
were Romans; and he was fighting, ostensibly, to vindicate the wounded
pride and honor of his country, which had been trampled under foot by
Antony and a stranger queen.
The generals of Antony united in imploring him not to confide his
destiny to the uncertainty of winds and waves, but to give battle
on shore, where, they answered for it, victory would perch upon
their banners. But Antony remained deaf to their supplications, and
Cleopatra, who had joined him with seventy Egyptian ships, also
preferred to fight a naval battle; it is said, in order that, if her
lover was vanquished, she herself could more easily escape.
Boldly searching for Antony, the Roman fleet came in contact with his,
near the promontory of Actium.
On opposite shores of the bay partly formed by that promontory lay the
two armies, spectators of a conflict which was to decide their fate,
but in which they were not to join.
The wind and weather were both favorable, but the two fleets remained
for a long time opposite to each other, as if hesitating to begin
the struggle, the issue of which was fraught with such momentous
consequences.
Antony had confided the command of his left wing to Cœlius; the centre
to Marcus Octavius and Marcus Inteius; while he himself, with Valerius
Publicola, assumed command of the right wing.
The fleet of Octavius was commanded by Agrippa, to whom all the glory
of the victory is due. Octavius and his admiral at first regarded with
surprise and uneasiness the immobility of the enemy, who were ensconced
in the arm of the sea, which sheet of water contained many shoals and
reefs, and therefore, if the enemy remained there, deprived Octavius
of the advantage to be derived from the rapidity of manœuvre of his
vessels.
[Illustration: BATTLE OF ACTIUM.]
But Antony’s officers, eager to show their prowess, proceeded to get
their left wing under way, and moved to the attack of Octavius’ right.
The latter, taking advantage of this false move, made a retrograde
movement, and endeavored to draw out the whole opposing force from
their commanding position unto the high sea, where the Romans would
have room to manœuvre, and thereby successfully assail Antony’s heavier
vessels.
At this moment the scene was grand. The flashing of arms, and glinting
of the sun upon polished casques, the streaming flags, and thousands
of oars simultaneously put in motion, gave life and animation; while
the blare of the brazen trumpets and the shouts of the myriads of
combatants were echoed from the shores by the cheers and cries of two
large armies, each encouraging its own fleet, and inciting them to the
greater exertion.
Cleopatra’s large and magnificent galley hovered in the rear of the
fleet, with the purple sails furled, and the poop occupied by herself
and her ladies, surrounded by all the splendor of the Egyptian court.
Thinking, as we have said, that Octavius’ fleet fled before them,
Antony and his commanders abandoned their advantageous position, and
followed Agrippa out to sea.
Once there, the Roman fleet quickly put about, in good order, and a
terrible battle at once began--Roman disputing with Roman the empire of
the world.
At last an able movement of Agrippa caused Antony’s centre to give
way; but despite the disorder which resulted, the action was steadily
maintained, the losses on each side being about equal, and victory
undecided.
The force of Agrippa made up by celerity of movement for the greater
number of Antony’s fleet, and the battle was at its height, when,
suddenly, Cleopatra, panic-stricken by the noise and dreadful carnage,
gave a signal for retreat, hoisted her purple sails, and, with the
whole Egyptian contingent, retreated rapidly, leaving a great gap in
the line of battle. Some were sunk by the beaks of their pursuers, but
the majority made their escape, and were soon far from the scene.
This shameful action should have opened Antony’s eyes, and have
stimulated him--being even yet superior in numbers--to repair by
renewed exertions the defection of the beautiful queen. But his
movements seemed to be controlled by her’s, and, forgetting his own
honor, his former glory, his empire, and his duty as commander, as a
soldier and as a man, he abandoned the brave seamen and soldiers who
were fighting for him, and took a fast, light vessel, and followed the
woman who had been his ruin, and at whose shrine he was about to offer
as a sacrifice the dishonor of Cæsar’s greatest lieutenant.
It is said that for some time he sat upon the deck, his head bowed
between his hands, and wrapped in his own thoughts. But he only
regained sufficient command of himself to resolve to protect the cause
of his ruin. He therefore continued his flight to the promontory of
Tenaros; and then soon after learned of the entire defeat of his fleet.
Even after being thus shamefully abandoned by their commander, his
troops and sailors had for a long time; maintained the combat; but
bad weather coming on they at last surrendered, after a loss of five
thousand killed, and having three hundred ships captured, with their
crews.
For a long time the land forces of Antony could not believe in his
defection, and looked for him to reappear, and, at their head, redeem
the fortunes of the sea fight. Indeed, for many days after the victory
they declined the overtures of Octavius. But at last, despairing of
Antony’s return, their general, with his principal officers and the
troops, passed under the banners of Octavius. This event left him the
undisputed master of the world.
Upon his return to Rome he was decreed a three days’ triumph, and he
now assumed in public the imperial powers which he had long virtually
possessed.
The shocking death of both Antony and Cleopatra, by suicide, hardly
belongs to the account of Actium, although the direct consequence of
the overwhelming defeat there sustained.
[Illustration: THE PTOLEMY PHILOPATER--405 B. C.
(Constructed by Ptolemy Philopater, of Egypt, after a Greek Model.)]