1. Education, in antiquity, was entirely a matter of domestic concern.
In countries where priestly or royal despotism prevailed, schools for
the benefit of the sons of the great, and for the priests, were
established. Moses, the Jewish lawgiver, was educated in a priestly
school in Egypt, and Cyrus, at a seminary belonging to the Persian
court. In Palestine, the Scriptures were taught in the schools of the
prophets; and, at later periods, in the synagogues, and in the schools
of the Rabbis, reading, committing to memory the sacred books, and
hearing explanations of their meaning, constituted the chief
exercises.
2. In the Grecian cities, boys and girls were taught reading, writing,
and arithmetic in private schools; and, after having completed the
primary course, those who aspired to higher degrees of knowledge,
resorted to the instructions of the philosophers and sophists. This
system was commenced as early as 500 years before the advent of
Christ.
3. Two hundred years after this period, the Romans began to have
primary schools for boys, in the cities; and, from the time of Julius
Caesar, who conferred on teachers the right of citizenship, they
possessed the higher institutions of the grammarians and the
rhetoricians. In the former of these, were taught the Latin and Greek
languages; and in the latter, young men of talent were prepared, by
exercises in declamation, for speaking in public.
4. Children, among the Greeks and Romans, were accompanied to school
by slaves, who, from the performance of this duty, were called
_pedagogues_; but, after slaves and freedmen had made acquirements in
literature and science, they were frequently employed as tutors; hence
the term, at length, came to imply a teacher of children, and it is
still used in reference to this employment, although we usually
connect with it the idea of pedantry.
5. Until the time of Vespasian, who commenced his reign in the year 70
of the Christian era, the schools were sustained entirely by private
enterprise. That emperor instituted public professorships of grammar
and rhetoric with fixed salaries, for the purpose of educating young
men for the public service; and, in A.D. 150, Antoninus Pius founded
imperial schools in the larger cities of the Roman empire. The most
celebrated place for the cultivation of science, in the ancient world,
was Athens; and, to this city, students from all parts of Europe
resorted, even as late as the ninth century.
6. Christianity, by degrees, gave a new turn to education; and, in the
East, it came gradually under the influence of the clergy. Schools
were instituted in the cities and villages for catechumens, and, in
some places, those of a higher grade, for the education of clergymen.
Of the latter kind, that in Alexandria was the most flourishing, from
the second to the fourth century.
7. From the fifth century, these higher institutions began to decline,
and others, called cathedral or episcopal schools, seem to have taken
their place. In these, besides theology, were taught _the seven
liberal arts_--grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry,
astronomy, and music; of which the three first were called the
_trivium_, and the four last the _quadrivium_. The text-book employed
was the Encyclopaedia of Marcianus Capella, of Africa. This compendium
was published at Rome, A.D. 470; and, although a meagre production, it
maintained its reputation in the schools of Europe more than 1000
years.
8. The imperial schools established by Antoninus Pius, declined, and
finally became extinct, in the confusion that followed the irruption
of the barbarians; but their places were supplied by the parochial and
cathedral schools just mentioned. These, however, were surpassed, in
the sixth century, by the _conventual_ schools, which were originally
designed to prepare persons for the monastic life, but which soon
began to be resorted to by laymen.
9. These schools were connected with the convents belonging to the
order of St. Benedict, and served as the chief glimmering lights
during the darkest period between ancient and modern civilization, in
Europe. They flourished in Ireland, England, France, and Germany, from
the sixth to the eleventh century. The teachers of these seminaries
were called _scholastici_, and from them the scholastic philosophy
derived its origin and name.
10. In the year 789, Charlemagne, king of the Franks, issued a decree
for the improvement of the schools of his empire, and for increasing
their number. Not only every bishop's see and every convent, but every
parish, was to have its school; the two former for the education of
clergymen and public officers, and the latter for the lower classes of
people. This monarch instituted an academy of learned men, to whom he
himself resorted for instruction, and whom he employed to educate his
children, and a select number of the sons of the nobility and
distinguished persons.
11. The encouragement which these schools had received from government
was soon discontinued after the death of this monarch, and his school
establishment declined like that of Alfred the Great, which was
commenced in the ninth century, on a scale of equal liberality. The
designs of the English monarch were frustrated by the invasions of the
Danes.
12. In the mean time, the Jewish rabbis had schools in Syria and in
Northern Africa, as well as in Europe, which contributed to the
preservation of ancient learning. Arabian schools were also
established, in the ninth century, by the followers of Mohammed, in
their Eastern and African caliphates, and in their Moorish dominions
in Spain. Through these institutions, the mathematical and medical
sciences were again revived in Europe.
13. The cathedral and conventual schools continued, for a long time,
the principal institutions for education in Europe; and from them
proceeded many eminent men. By degrees the light of science began to
shine more brightly; teachers of eminence appeared in different
places, who collected around them a great number of scholars; and a
new kind of schools arose, the heads of which assumed the name of
_rectores_.
14. In Paris, several of these teachers gave instructions in various
branches, but chiefly in rhetoric, philosophy, and theology. The
schools thus collected under different masters, were, in 1206, united
under one rector; and, on this account, the whole mass of teachers and
scholars was denominated _universitas_. Universities, in other parts
of Europe, arose in a similar manner, and some of them, about the same
time. Those of Oxford and Cambridge, according to some writers, were
established about the year 1200; and the two first of these
institutions in Germany were founded at Prague and Vienna, the former
in 1348, and the latter in 1365.
15. The division of the students into four _nations_ was an essential
feature in the early universities. It arose from the circumstance that
the pupils coming from different countries, spoke different languages.
Those whose language was the same or similar, would naturally
associate together, and attend the instructions of the same teachers.
This division into nations is supposed to have grown up at Paris,
previous to the formal union of the several schools under one rector.
16. The first teachers, from whose exertions the universities
originated, commenced their public instructions without permission
from established authority. Subsequently, the state and university
were careful to prevent all persons from giving lectures, who were not
well qualified for the employment. Examinations were therefore
instituted to determine the capabilities of students. Those who were
found competent, received a formal permission to teach, accompanied
with certain symbols in the spirit of the age.
17. The first academical degree was that of _baccalaureus_, the
second, _licentiatus_; and the third _magister_. The last of these
entitled the student to all the privileges of his former teachers, and
constituted him one of the _facultas artium--the faculty of the seven
liberal arts_, since called the philosophic faculty. The other
faculties were those of theology, law, and medicine. The first of
these was instituted at Paris in 1259, and the two last, in 1260. The
faculties elected _deans_ from among their number, who, with the
_procuratores_, or heads of the four nations of students, represented
the university. These representatives possessed the power of
conferring degrees in the different departments of literature and
science.
18. Among the public institutions of the early universities were the
colleges, (_collegia_,) buildings in which students, especially those
who were poor, might live together, under superintendents, without
paying for their lodging. In some cases, they received their board,
and frequently other allowances, gratis. These institutions were
commenced at Paris; but here, as well as in other places, they did not
continue the asylums of the necessitous only. In France and England,
the buildings of universities are composed chiefly of these colleges,
in which the students reside, and in which the business of instruction
is mainly carried on.
19. The teachers in the universities were at first paid for their
services by the students. At a later period, the magistrates of the
town or city where the institution was located, made presents to
eminent scholars, to induce them to remain. This practice finally led
to the payment of regular salaries. From and after the fourteenth
century, universities were not left to grow up of themselves as
formerly, but were expressly established by public authorities or by
the popes.
20. The inactivity and luxury of the clergy, had led to the neglect of
the old seminaries of learning. The universities were therefore
necessary, not only to revive the taste for science and literature,
but also to form a new body of teachers. These institutions, however,
at length became subject to undue clerical influence, since the monks
obtained admission into them as teachers, and then labored to increase
the importance of their several orders, as well as the power of the
Roman pontiff.
21. The monks, also, connected, with their convents, popular schools,
and undertook the education of the children in the cities. But their
method of instruction was exceedingly defective, since the intelligent
investigation of the subjects studied was little encouraged, and since
the memory of the pupils was brought into requisition to the almost
entire exclusion of the other faculties of the mind.
22. In the lower parish schools, the children were not permitted to
learn to write, the monks being desirous of confining to the clergy
the practice of this art, which was very lucrative before the
invention of printing. The art was called _ars clericalis_; and, for a
long time, the privilege of establishing writing schools for the
children of citizens, was a matter of negotiation between the
magistrates and the clergy.
23. But the citizens becoming, at length, more independent, the
magistrates themselves began to superintend the education of youth.
_Trivial_ schools were established, in which the _trivium_, and
reading and writing, were taught; but for these, as well as for the
cathedral and parish schools, which had been neglected for some time
by the higher clergy, itinerant monks and students were employed as
teachers.
24. The elder pupils of the highest class frequently wandered from one
school to another, under the pretence of pursuing their studies,
sometimes taking with them younger scholars, whom they compelled to
beg or steal, in order to supply their wants. As late as the sixteenth
century, Luther complains that these _vacantivi_ (or idlers) were the
persons chiefly employed as schoolmasters in Germany.
25. A pious fraternity, called Jeronymites, consisting of clergymen
and laymen, who lived together, and occupied themselves partly in
mechanic arts, and partly in the instruction of youth, exerted
considerable influence on education in general. They first established
themselves in Italy, and afterwards in the Netherlands, on the Rhine,
and in Northern Germany.
26. Much was done during the last half of the fourteenth century, and
in the one hundred years that followed, to encourage the study of the
ancient classics. The attention of literary men was turned to these
interesting remains of antiquity by the arrival of many learned
Greeks, who had fled from Turkish oppression, and who had brought with
them the ancient writings.
27. These treasures of former civilization were unfolded to the modern
world by the art of printing, which was invented in 1441; and the
reformation, which commenced in 1517, also aided the advancement of
education. The corporations of the German cities in which the reformed
religion was received, founded seminaries, called _gymnasia_, and
_lyceums_, with permanent professorships. A vast amount of property,
belonging to the convents and the Church, was confiscated by the
governments, and appropriated chiefly to the promotion of education.
28. The schools in the countries which adhered to the Roman Catholic
religion, however, continued in nearly the same state, until the
Jesuit schools arose, towards the end of the sixteenth century. These,
on account of the ability with which they were conducted, soon gained
the ascendency, and for a long time maintained their reputation; but
they, at length, degenerated, and finally became extinct, on the
suppression of the order of Jesuits in 1773.
29. Italy, Spain, and Portugal, have, for a long time, been inactive
in relation to education, it being left entirely to the clergy, and
the efforts of the people in their individual capacity. Much has been
done in Austria, within fifty years, to advance this important
interest. Under the late emperor, professorships were constituted, in
the universities and cathedral seminaries, for the instruction of
teachers; and gymnasia, common and Sunday schools, were established in
almost every part of the kingdom.
30. The general organization of schools in France, in the eighteenth
century, was similar to that of most other Catholic countries. The
government did nothing for the education of the people at large; and
the Church, which possessed a large proportion of the property of the
nation, left the people in total ignorance; whence may have arisen
much of the atrocity which marked the early part of the revolution.
31. During the popular reign, the education of youth was declared to
be under the care of the state, and many schools, called
_polytechnic_, were established. Napoleon, also, afterwards instituted
several military schools, and contemplated the introduction of a
system of general education. With this view, he instituted an imperial
university, which was to have the supreme direction of instruction in
France; but his designs were but partially carried into effect.
32. When the Bourbons were again restored to the throne of France,
they, with the clergy, labored to restore the old order of things;
and, to keep the common people from becoming dangerous, the
Lancasterian schools, established in 1816, were abolished. Efficient
measures, however, have been lately adopted by Louis Philip to
establish schools of different grades throughout his kingdom.
33. In England and Ireland, although the middling and higher classes
are comparatively well educated, no system of general instruction has
ever been established for the benefit of the common people. Much,
however, has been accomplished by charity and Sunday schools; the
former of which were commenced in 1698, and the latter in 1812.
Besides these, there are numerous charitable foundations on which many
persons of limited means have been educated at the higher
institutions.
34. In Scotland, more liberal provisions have been made for general
education. The system was commenced in the reign of William and Mary,
when, by an act of Parliament, every parish was required to maintain a
school. The people have so far improved their privileges, that nearly
all of the inhabitants of that part of Great Britain can read and
write.
35. The government of Russia, during the last and present century, has
directed some attention to the promotion of education. According to
the decrees of the Emperor Alexander, schools of different grades were
to be established throughout the empire; but these decrees have been
yet only partially executed.
36. In no part of the world has the education of all classes of people
been more encouraged than in the United States. This has arisen
chiefly from the circumstance, that a remarkable proportion of the
colonists were persons of education. This was particularly the case
with those of New-England, where the instruction of youth, from the
very beginning of the settlements, was made a matter of public
concern.
37. The principle of making public provision for this purpose, thus
early adopted, has never been deserted; on the contrary, it has become
so deeply interwoven with the social condition of the people of
New-England, that there are few families in that part of the Union,
which are not within reach of a public school; and, in every state
where the influence of the people from that section of the country is
predominant, public schools have been organized by legal provisions,
and a fund has been provided, by which at least a part of the expense
of supporting them is paid.
38. In all the states in which these primary institutions are
established by legislative enactments, they are kept in operation, in
country places, between six and nine months of the year. A _master_ is
employed in the winter, and a _mistress_, in the summer: the former
receives for his services from ten to fifteen dollars per month, and
the latter, from seventy-five cents to two dollars per week, together
with boarding. The teachers, however, during their engagement are
compelled to reside in the different families of the _district_, their
stay at each place being determined, with scrupulous exactness, by the
number of children sent to the school.
39. From the low salaries received for these important services, and
the short periods for which engagements are made, it is evident, that
teaching a district school cannot be pursued as a regular employment.
These schools are, therefore, supplied by persons who, during the rest
of the year, follow some other business; or by students, who rely, in
part or entirely, on their own exertions to defray the expenses of
their academical, collegiate, or professional education.
40. These schools are, no doubt, institutions of great value; but, in
the states where they have been established, they are evidently much
overrated. They fail in accomplishing the ends for which they have
been instituted, through the extreme tenacity with which the people
adhere to ancient and defective methods of instruction, the frequent
change of teachers, and the small compensation allowed for the
services of competent instructors.
41. In the cities and populous towns or villages, the public schools
are kept up during the whole of the year, and the system of
instruction is generally better than that pursued in the country. In
New-York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and in some other cities, the
Lancasterian plan of mutual instruction, with many modifications, is
preferred, principally on account of its cheapness.
42. Select-schools and private academies are, also, very numerous.
These are located chiefly in the cities and populous towns, and are
supported entirely by fees for tuition received from the parents or
guardians of the pupils. These institutions do not differ essentially
from those of a private nature in similar situations in other parts of
the United States, where common schools are not established by law.
43. In the Southern states, wealthy families often employ private
tutors. Sometimes two, three, or more families, and even a whole
neighborhood, unite for the purpose of forming a school; and, to
induce a teacher to commence or continue his labors among them, an
adequate amount is made up beforehand by subscription. South of
Pennsylvania, Delaware, and the Ohio River, such engagements are
commonly made for a year, as, in that section of the Union, the
opinion prevails, that a teacher can do but little towards improving
his pupils in a much shorter time.
44. The literary institutions which are next above the common schools,
and which are established by legislative authority, are the academies,
of which there are between five and six hundred in the United States.
Some of these have been founded by the funds of the state in which
they are located, some, by the union of a few spirited individuals, or
by private bequests.
45. The course of instruction pursued in these seminaries of learning
varies considerably from each other. In some of them, it is confined
chiefly to the common branches of education; in others, the course is
pretty extensive, embracing natural and moral philosophy, chemistry,
belles lettres, and a sound course of mathematics, together with
Latin, Greek, and some of the modern languages. One great object in
these institutions is to prepare students for college. The teacher who
has charge of an academy is called the _principal_, while the teacher
who may aid him in his labors is denominated the _assistant_ or
_usher_.
46. The highest institutions of learning among us are the colleges and
universities. Between these, however, there seems to be but little
difference, since the course of studies is nearly or quite the same in
both, and since the charters obtained from the legislatures grant to
both similar powers of conferring honorary degrees. The whole number
of these establishments in the United States is about eighty.
47. The principal teachers in the colleges are denominated
_professors_, who confine their labors to communicating instructions
in particular branches of literature or science. These are aided by
assistants called _tutors_. The latter are generally young men, who
devote two or three years to this employment, before entering upon the
practice of a profession. The number of professors and tutors in the
several colleges varies according to their amount of funds, and number
of students.