1. This globe, and every thing appertaining to it, is composed of
substances, which exist either in a compound or simple state. It is
the object of the scientific chemist to investigate the properties of
these substances, and to show their action upon each other. By this
science, therefore, compound bodies are reduced to the simple elements
of which they are composed, or new combinations formed.
2. According to the preceding definitions, chemistry comprehends an
immense variety of objects. It is scarcely possible to name a thing or
phenomenon in the natural world, to which it does not directly or
indirectly apply; even the growth of vegetables, and the preparation
and digestion of our food, depend upon chemical principles.
3. The word chemistry is supposed to be of Egyptian origin, and, in
its primary application, was the same with our phrase natural
philosophy. Its meaning was afterwards restricted to the art of
working those metals which were most esteemed. In the third century,
it came to be applied to the pretended art of transmuting baser metals
into gold. The science, in the latter sense of the word, was eagerly
cultivated by the Greeks; and from them it passed to the Arabians, who
introduced it into Europe under the name of alchemy.
4. The professors of the art were dignified with the appellation of
alchemistic philosophers, and the leading doctrine of the sect was,
that all metals are composed of the most simple substances; and that,
consequently, base metals were capable of being changed into gold;
hence, the chief object of their researches was the discovery of an
agent, by which this great change was to be effected. The substance
supposed to possess this wonderful property was called "the
philosopher's stone;" the touch of which was to change every kind of
metal into gold.
5. The greatest rage for alchemy prevailed between the tenth and
sixteenth centuries. The writers on this subject who appeared during
that period, are very numerous, most of whom are unintelligible,
except to those initiated into the art. Many of them, however, display
great acuteness, and an extensive acquaintance with natural objects.
They all boast, that they are in possession of the philosopher's
stone, and profess the ability of communicating a knowledge of making
it to others.
6. Their writings and confident professions gained almost implicit
credit, and many unwary persons were thus exposed to the tricks of
impostors, who offered to communicate their secret for a pecuniary
reward. Having obtained the sum proposed, they either absconded, or
wearied out their patrons with tedious and expensive processes.
7. Chemists, for a long time, had supposed it possible to discover, by
their art, a medicine which should not only cure, but prevent all
diseases, and prolong life to an indefinite period, even to
immortality. This notion gradually becoming prevalent, the word
_chemistry_ acquired a more extensive application, and embraced not
only the art of making gold, but also that of preparing "the universal
medicine." Some of these visionary men asserted, that the
philosopher's stone was this wonderful panacea.
8. Few readers need be informed, that the researches for the
philosopher's stone, and the universal remedy, were, at length,
abandoned, as fruitless and visionary; yet the numerous experiments
which had been instituted on these accounts, were attended with the
incidental advantage of a considerable dexterity in the performance of
chemical operations, together with the discovery of many new
substances and valuable facts, which, without these strong incentives,
would have remained, at least, much longer in obscurity.
9. Although none of the medicines, produced in the chemical
laboratory, answered the chimerical expectations of the chemists, in
curing all diseases, and in rendering the perishable body of man
immortal, yet they proved sufficiently valuable in the healing art, to
command the attention of the profession all over Europe. The adoption
of chemical medicines, however, was, at first, everywhere opposed,
either as unsafe remedies, or as being inferior in efficacy to those
which had been used for so many centuries.
10. These prejudices having given way to the light of experience,
chemical medicines came, at length, to occupy a conspicuous place in
the Materia Medica; and their value within the present century has
become still more manifest. One of the most useful branches of
chemistry, therefore, is to make the various preparations used in the
medical art.
11. The most efficient agent in the introduction of chemical
medicines, was Theophilus Paracelsus. This singular individual was
born near Zurich, in Switzerland. Having studied chemistry under two
masters, he commenced a rambling life, in pursuit of chemical and
medical knowledge; and, having visited Italy, France, and Germany,
where he met with many whimsical adventures, which contributed greatly
to advance his reputation, he was elected, in 1527, to fill the chair
of chemistry, in the University of Basle.
12. One of the first acts of this arrogant professor was to burn, with
the utmost solemnity, while seated in his chair, the works of Galen
and Avicenna, declaring to his audience, that if God would not impart
the secrets of physic, it was not only allowable, but even
justifiable, to consult the devil. He also treated his contemporaries
with the same insolence, telling them, in a preface to one of his
books, that "the very down on his bald pate had more knowledge than
all their writers; the buckle of his shoes more learning than Galen
and Avicenna; and his beard more experience than all their
universities."
13. It could not be expected, that a man with such a temper could long
retain his situation; and, accordingly, he was driven from it, in
1528, by a quarrel with those who had conferred the appointment. From
this time, he rambled about the country, chiefly in Germany, leading a
life of extreme intemperance, in the lowest company. Nevertheless, he
still maintained his reputation as a physician, by the extraordinary
cures occasionally effected by his powerful remedies; although his
failures were equally conspicuous.
14. But the most signal failure of his remedies occurred in his own
person; for, after having boasted for many years of possessing an
elixir which would prolong life to an indefinite period, he died, in
1541, at Salzburg, with a bottle of his immortal catholicon in his
pocket. The medicines on which Paracelsus chiefly relied, were opium,
antimony, and various preparations of mercury. He has the merit of
applying the last, especially, to cases in which they had not been
before used; and upon this circumstance, his great reputation
depended.
15. We have been thus particular in noticing this individual, because
he was the first who gave public lectures on chemistry in Europe, and
because he gave the first great impulse in favor of chemical
medicines. He also carried his speculations concerning the
philosopher's stone and the universal remedy, to the greatest height
of absurdity; and, by exemplifying their inutility and fallacy in his
own person, he contributed more than any one else to their disrepute,
and subsequent banishment from the science.
16. Researches for the philosopher's stone, and the universal remedy,
having been, at length, relinquished, the chemical facts which had
been collected became, in the general estimation, a heap of rubbish of
little value. At this time, there arose an individual thoroughly
acquainted with these facts, and capable of perceiving the important
purposes to which they might be applied.
17. The name of this individual was John Joachim Becher. He published
a work in 1669, entitled "Physica Subterranica," by which he gave a
new direction to chemistry, by applying it to analyzing and
ascertaining the constituent parts of material bodies; and his system
is the foundation of the science, as it now exists.
18. George Ernest Stahl, a medical professor in the University of
Halle, adopted the theory of Becher, and, after his death, edited the
work just mentioned; but he so simplified and improved it, that he
made it entirely his own; and, accordingly, it has always been
distinguished by the appellation of the Stahlian theory. The principal
work of Stahl, on this subject, was published in 1729; and, since that
time, chemistry has been cultivated with ardor in Germany, and in
other countries in the north of Europe.
19. In France, chemistry became a fashionable study, about the middle
of the eighteenth century. It had, however, been cultivated there by a
few individuals, long before that period. Men of eminence now appeared
in all parts of the kingdom, and discoveries in the science were made
in rapid succession. Some attention was also paid to it in Italy and
Spain.
20. In Great Britain, this subject attracted but little attention,
except from a few individuals, until Dr. Cullen had become professor
of the science, in the University of Edinburgh, in 1756. This accurate
investigator of natural phenomena, succeeded in enkindling an
enthusiasm for chemical investigations among the students; and the
subsequent experiments of Dr. Black, Mr. Cavendish, Dr. Priestley, and
Lavoisier, which resulted in the discovery of the constituent parts of
air and water, diffused the same ardor through every part of the
kingdom.
21. Lavoisier, the celebrated French chemist, having proved the
Stahlian theory to be incorrect, founded another on the chemical
affinities and combinations of oxygen with the various substances in
nature. This system has been generally adopted; since it explains a
great number of phenomena more satisfactorily than any other ever
proposed. The great chemical agent, in the Stahlian system, was
supposed to be an inflammable substance, which was denominated by the
theorist _phlogiston_. To distinguish, therefore, the new theory from
the one which it superseded, it was called the pneumatic, or
anti-phlogistic system.
22. In 1787, a new technical nomenclature was devised, by the aid of
which all the chemical facts are easily retained in the memory. Twelve
or fifteen terms have been found sufficient for the foundation of a
methodical language; and, by changing the terminations of these
radicals, or by prefixing certain words or syllables, the changes that
take place in bodies are clearly expressed. This valuable innovation
originated with Lavoisier and three other French chemists.
23. In the present century, many important discoveries have been made
in this science; and, among those who have been distinguished for
their researches into its mysteries, Sir Humphrey Davy, of Great
Britain, shines pre-eminent. In the United States, it has many able
professors; among whom are Professors Hare and Mitchell, of
Philadelphia, Torrey, Renwick, and Draper, of New-York, Henry, of
Princeton, Beck, of Albany, Silliman, of New-Haven, and Johnson, of
Middletown.
24. Chemistry is so extensive in its application, that we will not
attempt to describe any of the operations of the laboratory. We,
therefore, conclude this article by recommending this science to
general attention; assuring the uninitiated, that it is beset with
fewer difficulties than they are apt to suppose, and that every effort
in the course will be attended with interesting facts and phenomena,
which will abundantly reward the labor of investigation.
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