should be clearly and properly pronounced. Incorrect articulation is
the result either of careless habits or of natural defects. In either
case, it may be largely overcome by persistent and careful drill in
the pronunciation of those words in which the greatest difficulty is
experienced. Conversation, declamation, calisthenics, singing, and
similar exercises should be engaged in, in order to assist in
overcoming habits of timidity or diffidence, and to give increased
power and flexibility to the vocal organs.
Syllabication and accent are learned by careful observation and by
reference, in all cases of doubt, to some standard dictionary.
EXPRESSION.
Correct expression in reading has reference to tone of voice,
inflection, pitch, emphasis, all of which are included under
modulation.
TONE.
Tone, or quality of voice, is the kind of sound employed in reading or
speaking. A conversational tone is such as is used in ordinary
conversation for the expression of quiet or unemotional thoughts. A
full tone of voice is used in the expression of high or lofty
sentiments, and of feelings of joy, courage, or exultation. A middle
tone is used in the rendering of expressions which while not
conversational in character are too unimpassioned to require a full
tone. A low or subdued tone is used in passages where the sense
requires a suppression of sound. The only rule necessary is this:
_Study so to regulate the tone of voice that it shall always be in
harmony with the thoughts expressed._
INFLECTION.
Inflection is the upward or downward movement of the voice in speaking
or reading. There are two inflections: the _rising inflection_, in
which the voice slides upward; and the _falling inflection_, in which
the voice slides downward. Sometimes there is a union of the two
inflections upon a single sound or syllable, in order to express
surprise, scorn, irony, sorrow, or other strong or peculiar emotion.
This union of inflections is called _circumflex_. No rule for
inflections can be given which is not subject to numerous exceptions.
The movement of the voice, whether upward or downward, is in all cases
determined by the thought in the sentence. _That inflection should be
used which will assist to convey, in the most natural and forcible
manner, the meaning intended by the author._
PITCH.
Very closely related to tone and inflection is pitch, by which is meant
the degree of elevation of the voice. Pitch may be _middle_, _high_, or
_low_. Middle pitch is that which is used in common conversation and in
the expression of unemotional thoughts. Light and joyous emotions and
lively narration require a high pitch. Passages expressing sadness, deep
joy, dignified serenity of mind, and kindred emotions, require a low
pitch. Hence, the only rule to be observed is this: _Let the pitch be
always in harmony with the sentiments to be expressed._
EMPHASIS.
Emphasis is any change of pitch, or variation of the voice, which
serves to call special attention to an important word, syllable, or
expression. The only rule that can be given for securing correctness
of emphasis is: _Be natural._ Children, in ordinary conversation,
never make mistakes in emphasis. If they are made to understand what
they are reading, have not been permitted to imitate incorrect models,
and are not hampered by unnecessary rules, they will read as well as
they talk. Let reading be but conversation from the book, and not only
emphasis, but pitch and inflection will require but little separate
attention, and no special rules.
PAUSES.
Pauses in reading are necessary to make the meaning clear or to assist
in the proper modulation of the voice and therefore in the correct
rendering of the sentiments of the author. The former are called
grammatical pauses, and are indicated by the marks of punctuation; the
latter are called rhetorical pauses, and depend for their correct
usage upon the reader's understanding of the thoughts which he is
endeavoring to render. In reading poetry, a slight pause is generally
proper at the end of each line, and sometimes also at the middle of
each line. The latter is called the _cæsural_ pause. The object of
poetic pauses is simply to promote the melody.
AUTHORS AND BOOKS.
=Abbott, Charles Conrad=, the author of the essay on "The Robin" (page
197), is an American writer and naturalist. He was born at Trenton, N.
J., in 1843. He is an ardent lover of nature, and has written several
delightful books on subjects relating to popular science and outdoor
life. Among these are "Birdland Echoes," from which the above-named
essay is taken; "A Naturalist's Wanderings about Home," and "Waste
Land Wanderings."
=Aytoun= ([=a]´toon), =William Edmonstoune=, the author of the selection
entitled "The Pass of Killiecrankie" (page 138), was a Scottish lawyer
and poet. Born in Edinburgh, 1813; died, 1865. He was for many years one
of the editors of "Blackwood's Magazine." He wrote "Lays of the Scottish
Cavaliers," "Ballads of Scotland," and other poems.
=Blackmore, Richard D.=, the author of "Lorna Doone," is an English
lawyer and novelist. Born in Berkshire, 1825. Besides "Lorna Doone,"
he has written "Alice Lorraine," "Springhaven," "The Maid of Sker,"
and several other stories.
=Browning, Mrs. Elizabeth Barrett=, the author of "The Romance of the
Swan's Nest" (page 98), was an English poet. Born in Durham, England,
1806. In 1846 she married Robert Browning, and during the rest of her
life resided chiefly at Florence, Italy, where she died in 1861. She
wrote "Prometheus Bound" (1833), "Aurora Leigh" (1857), and many
shorter poems.
=Bryant, William Cullen=, the author of "The Death of the Flowers"
(page 18), was one of the most popular of American poets. Born at
Cummington, Mass., 1794; died at New York, 1878. Besides his poems, he
wrote translations of Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey," and was for more
than half a century one of the editors of "The Evening Post" (New York).
=Buckley, Arabella Burton=, is an English author and naturalist. Born
at Brighton, England, 1840. She has written several books on
scientific subjects for young readers: "The Fairy Land of Science,"
from which our selection is taken (page 29), "Winners in Life's Race,"
and "Life and her Children."
=Campbell, Thomas=: A British poet and critic. Born at Glasgow,
Scotland, 1777; died, 1844. He wrote "The Pleasures of Hope,"
"Hohenlinden," "Lochiel's Warning," and many other well-known poems.
"=Cloister and the Hearth, The=": An historical romance, by Charles
Reade, first published in 1861. The scenes are laid mostly in Holland
and Italy, and the time is the middle of the fifteenth century. See
page 153.
=Collier, W. F.=, author of the sketch on "Life in Norman England" (page
89), is an English historian. He has written "The History of the British
Empire," "A History of England," and several other similar works.
=Cowper, William=: A celebrated English poet. Born, 1731; died, 1800.
His principal work was "The Task," from which our brief selection
(page 196) has been taken. He wrote also "John Gilpin," "Tirocinium,"
and several other poems.
"=David Copperfield, The Personal History of=": A novel, by Charles
Dickens, first published in 1849. "Of all my books," says Dickens, "I
like this the best." Many scenes in the novelist's own life are
depicted in this story. The character from whom the book took its name
is a timid boy reduced to desperation by the cruelty of his
stepfather, Mr. Murdstone. At ten years of age he is sent to a
warehouse in London, where he was employed in rough work at a small
salary. He finally runs away, and is protected and adopted by an
eccentric maiden lady, Miss Betsey Trotwood. He becomes a writer, and
marries a gentle, innocent little lady, whom he calls his "child
wife"; she dies, and he afterwards marries a woman of stronger mind,
named Agnes Wickfield. The selection which we give (page 121) is a
fair example of the style which characterizes the story.
=Dickens, Charles=: The most popular of English novelists. Born, 1812;
died, 1870. Wrote "The Pickwick Papers," "Nicholas Nickleby," "Oliver
Twist," "David Copperfield," from which our story of "The Shipwreck"
(page 121) has been taken, and numerous other works of fiction.
=Drake, Joseph Rodman=, author of "The American Flag" (page 206), was
an American poet. Born at New York, 1795; died, 1820. His principal
work was "The Culprit Fay," written in 1816.
=Everett, Edward=: An American statesman and orator. Born at Boston,
Mass., 1794; died, 1865. He was editor of the "North American Review,"
member of Congress, Governor of Massachusetts, President of Harvard
College, Secretary of State in the cabinet of Millard Fillmore, and
United States Senator from Massachusetts. His orations and speeches
fill four volumes.
=Froude, James Anthony=: A noted English historian. Born, 1818; died,
1894. His chief work was a "History of England from the Fall of Wolsey
to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada." He also wrote four volumes of
"Short Studies on Great Subjects," "Cæsar, a Sketch," "Life of Lord
Beaconsfield," "Life of Carlyle," etc.
=Hemans, Mrs. Felicia=: An English poet. Born at Liverpool, 1793; died,
1835. She wrote numerous short poems, which were at one time very
popular. She is best remembered in this country as the author of "The
Landing of the Pilgrims" (page 195), "Casabianca," and similar pieces.
=Hogg, James=: A Scottish poet, often called from his occupation the
Ettrick Shepherd. Born, 1770; died, 1835. Among his poems are "The
Queen's Wake" (1813), "The Pilgrims of the Sun" (1815), and many short
pieces.
=Howells, William Dean=: An American novelist and poet. Born at
Martinsville, Ohio, 1837. He was for ten years editor of the "Atlantic
Monthly." He has written numerous novels, several short comedies or
farces, and a volume of poetry. Our selection is from one of his
latest works, "Stories of Ohio," a series of sketches relating to the
settlement and early history of that commonwealth.
=Hunt, James Henry Leigh=, author of the poem entitled "The Glove and
the Lions" (page 119), was an English essayist and poet. Born, 1784;
died, 1859. His chief poem is "The Story of Rimini"; his principal
prose works are "Life of Lord Byron" (1828), and "Autobiography" (1850).
"=Idylls of the King=": The first part of this noble poem by Lord
Tennyson appeared in 1859, and the remaining parts were issued at
various intervals until its completion. It comprises twelve books, or
poems, which should be read in the following order: "The Coming of
Arthur," "Gareth and Lynette," "The Marriage of Geraint," "Geraint and
Enid," "Balin and Balan," "Merlin and Vivien," "Lancelot and Elaine,"
"The Holy Grail," "Pelleas and Etarre," "The Last Tournament,"
"Guinevere," "The Passing of Arthur." Taken together in this order,
these various poems present a complete and connected history of King
Arthur and his knights. See page 216.
=Ingelow= (in´je l[=o]), =Jean=: An English poet and novelist. Born at
Boston, Lincolnshire, 1830; died, 1897. Wrote "Off the Skelligs,"
"Fated to be Free," "A Motto Changed," several children's books, and
numerous poems.
=Irving, Washington=: An eminent American writer. Born, 1783; died,
1859. His principal works are "Columbus and his Companions" (from
which the extract beginning on page 25 is taken), "The Sketch Book,"
"Tales of a Traveler" (1824), "The Conquest of Granada" (1829), "The
Alhambra" (1832), "Oliver Goldsmith" (1849), "Mahomet and His
Successors" (1850), "Life of George Washington" (1859).
"=Job, The Book of=": One of the books of the Old Testament, the
authorship of which is unknown, but has been ascribed to various
persons and periods of time. It is doubtless one of the oldest
literary productions in our possession, and may be described as a
poetic drama, having a didactic purpose. The hero of the book is Job,
a man of great wealth and prosperity, who has been suddenly overtaken
by misfortune. The great literary merit of the work is recognized by
all scholars.
=Johnson, Dr. Samuel=: An eminent English essayist, poet, and
lexicographer. Born, 1709; died, 1784. For his biography, see
Macaulay's essay on his life and works in "School Reading by
Grades--Seventh Year."
=Jonson, Ben=: A celebrated English poet and dramatist. Born, 1573;
died, 1637. Among his plays are "Every Man in his Humour" (1598),
"Cynthia's Revels" (1600), "The Alchemist" (1610), etc.
=Kingsley, Charles=: An eminent English author and clergyman. See
Biographical Notes in "School Reading by Grades--Fifth Year."
"=Lays of Ancient Rome=": A volume of poems written by Lord Macaulay
and first published in 1842. It includes "Horatius" (see page 32),
"The Battle of Lake Regillus," "Virginia," and "The Prophecy of Capys."
=Lewes= (l[=u]´es), =George Henry=: An English philosophical and
miscellaneous writer. Born at London, 1817; died, 1878. He wrote
"Seaside Studies" (1858), "Studies in Animal Life" (1862), "Problems
of Life and Mind" (1874), and many other works on scientific and
philosophical subjects.
=Lincoln, Abraham=: The sixteenth President of the United States. Born
in Kentucky, 1809; died at Washington, D. C., 1865. The "Address at
Gettysburg" (page 205) is generally conceded to be one of the noblest
examples of oratory produced in modern times.
"=Lorna Doone=: a Romance of Exmoor." First published in 1869. See
page 64.
"=Mexico, History of the Conquest of=," by William H. Prescott (see
page 104), was first published in 1843. Other works relating to the
same event are "The Spanish Conquest in America," by Sir Arthur Helps,
"The Fair God" (a romance) by General Lew Wallace.
=Prescott, William Hickling=: An eminent American historian. Born at
Salem, Mass., 1796; died, 1859. His principal works are "History of
the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella" (1838), "Conquest of Mexico" (see
note above), "Conquest of Peru" (1847), "History of Philip II" (1858).
=Reade, Charles=: A noted English barrister and novelist. Born in
Oxfordshire, 1814; died, 1884. His novels are very numerous, but the
best is "The Cloister and the Hearth," from which our selection is
taken (page 153). Several of his writings are noted for their strong
opposition to social evils.
=Scott, Sir Walter.= See Biographical Notes in "School Reading by
Grades--Fifth Year."
=Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn=: An English divine and historian. Born,
1815; died, 1881. He traveled in Egypt and Palestine in 1852-53; wrote
"Sinai and Palestine" (1856), "Memorials of Canterbury" (1855),
"History of the Jewish Church" (1865), etc.
=Stockton, Frank Richard=: A noted American author and humorist. Born
at Philadelphia, 1834. He has written "Rudder Grange," "The Clocks of
Rondaine," "Pomona's Travels," "Stories of New Jersey," and many
other works, including several books for children.
"=Tales of a Grandfather=": A collection of historical stories, by Sir
Walter Scott, first published in four series, 1827-30. See page 66.
=Tennyson, Alfred.= See Biographical Notes in "School Reading by
Grades--Fifth Year."
=Tyndall, John=: An eminent British scientist. Born in Ireland, 1820;
died in England, 1893. Among his works are "The Forms of Water in
Clouds and Rivers" (1873) from which our extract is selected (page
202), "Hours of Exercise in the Alps" (1871), "Fragments of Science"
(1892), and many other works of a similar character.
"=Westward Ho! or the Voyages and Adventures of Sir Amyas Leigh=": A
novel by Charles Kingsley, first published in 1855. See page 165.
=Winthrop, Robert Charles=: An American statesman and orator. Born at
Boston, 1809; died, 1894. His most famous addresses were delivered at
the laying of the corner-stone of the Washington Monument, 1848, and
at the completion of the same monument, 1885.
=White, Gilbert=: An English clergyman and naturalist, famous as the
author of "Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne" (1789). He was
born at Selborne, 1720; died there, 1793.
=Yonge= (yung), =Charlotte Mary=: An English writer and novelist. Born
at Otterbourne, 1823. She has written more than a hundred volumes,
including, "The Heir of Redclyffe," "Daisy Chain," "Landmarks of
History," and "A Book of Golden Deeds," from which the selection
beginning on page 208 is taken.
EXPLANATORY NOTES.
=Page 20.= "Straits of Sunda." The passage between the islands of Java
and Sumatra, leading from the Indian Ocean to the Sea of Java. See a
good map of this part of the world.
=25.= "The Return of Columbus." Returning from his first voyage (see
"School Reading by Grades--Fourth Year," page 43), Columbus reached
Palos, March 15, 1493. The selection here given from Irving describes
his triumphal reception a few weeks later at the court of Ferdinand
and Isabella at Barcelona.
"Hidalgos." Spanish noblemen of the lower class.
=27.= "Las Casas." A Spanish historian, born, 1474; died, 1566. He
went to America in 1502, and in 1542 was Bishop of Chiapas in Mexico.
We are indebted to him for some of the earliest trustworthy accounts
of the Spanish discoveries. He was the friend and defender of the
Indians against their European conquerors.
=28.= "_Te Deum laudamus._" "We praise thee, O God."
=32.= Tarquin the Proud, or Tarquinius Superbus, reigned, according to
the traditional account, from 534 to 509 B.C. The modern name of
Clusium is Chiusi (K[=e] [=oo]´s[=e]). It is situated in the province
of Siena in Italy, and is famous for its ruins of Etruscan origin.
=33.= "Consul." After the expulsion of the kings from Rome the
governing power was vested in two consuls, who were elected annually.
At the time of the story, one of the consuls had been slain in battle
with Porsena. Our selection begins with the twenty-sixth stanza of
Macaulay's poem.
"Ramnian," belonging to the Ramnes, the first of the three tribes
which originally composed the Roman nation. Herminius was a member of
the second tribe, or Tities. The third tribe were the Luceres.
=35.= For the places mentioned on this and the following pages, see
some good classical atlas.
=36.= "She-wolf's litter." A reference to the legend that Romulus and
Remus, the founders of Rome, were, when babes, protected and reared by
a she-wolf.
=42.= "Fathers." The Roman senators.
=44.= Sir Francis Drake was an English seaman, born about 1540; died,
1596. He was famous for his operations on the sea against the
Spaniards of America, and especially for being the first Englishman to
circumnavigate the globe.
=66.= Bannockburn is the name of a small village three miles south of
Stirling, in Scotland. Robert Bruce, one of the national heroes of
Scotland, was born, 1274; died, 1329. His right to the throne of
Scotland was disputed by Edward I. of England, who claimed the
suzerainty of that country for himself. The war which resulted from
this dispute was continued by Edward II. until he met with the signal
defeat here narrated. Bruce's right to the Scottish throne was
formally acknowledged by England in 1328.
=89.= "Great stone castles." For a description of the different parts
of a Norman castle mentioned in this selection, see the word "Castle"
in Webster's International Dictionary.
=93.= "Conquest." The Norman conquest under Duke William, 1066. See
"School Reading by Grades--Fourth Year," page 181.
"Author of 'Ivanhoe.'" Sir Walter Scott. See "Ivanhoe," Chapter VIII.
"Quintain." An upright post, on the top of which turned a cross-piece,
having on one end a broad board and on the other a sandbag. The
endeavor was to strike the board with the lance while riding under it
and get away without being hit by the sandbag.
=96.= "Scriptorium." A room in a monastery where the monks wrote or
copied manuscripts. See "School Reading by Grades--Fifth Year," page
170.
=100.= "Nathless." Nevertheless.
=104.= Cortés. Hernando Cortés was born in Spain in 1485. In 1504, at
the age of nineteen, he sailed for Santo Domingo, where he was
received with great favor, and where for several years he held
important offices in connection with the government of the new colony.
In 1518 he organized the expedition for the conquest of Mexico. The
city was finally captured, after a gallant defense of 77 days, August
13, 1521. Utterly neglected and forsaken in his old age, Cortés died
at Seville, in Spain, December 2, 1547.
=106.= "Palanquin" (p[)a]l an k[=e]n´). An inclosed litter, borne on
men's shoulders, for conveying a single person.
=106.= "Cacique" (k[.a] s[=e]k´). A chieftain, or nobleman, among the
Aztecs or Indians.
=107.= "Panache" (p[)a]n [.a]sh´). A plume or bunch of feathers. A
military plume.
=109.= "Tenochtitlan" (ten [=o]ch t[=e]t län´). The Aztec name for
their chief city, the site of which is now occupied by the city of
Mexico. It was founded about two hundred years before the Spanish
conquest, and was built on an island in Tezcuco Lake. The name Mexitl,
or Mexico, was also applied to the city, or to a portion of it.
=110.= "Bernal Diaz" (d[=e]´äth). A Spanish soldier in the army of
Cortés, who afterwards wrote a history of the conquest.
=111.= "Montezuma." Cortés repaid this chieftain for his kindness by
seizing him in his own house and carrying him to the Spanish quarters,
where he kept him as a prisoner. The Aztecs attacked the quarters, and
Montezuma, by the direction of Cortés, appeared on the wall to counsel
peace. This so exasperated them that they pelted him with stones, and
wounded him so that he died four days later.
=118.= "The Lions." Rosa Bonheur, from whose painting this picture has
been reproduced, is one of the most famous painters of the nineteenth
century, especially of animal life and of landscapes. She was born at
Bordeaux, France, in 1828. For nearly fifty years she has been
directress of the Free School of Design for Young Girls in Paris. Many
of her paintings have received high praise, but the one by which she
is best known in this country is "The Horse Fair," in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York.
=138.= "Sir William Wallace." One of the national heroes of Scotland.
His deeds are commemorated in a once very popular romance by Jane
Porter entitled "The Scottish Chiefs" (1810).
=139.= "Schehallion." A mountain 35 miles northwest of Perth.
Altitude, 3547 feet.
=140.= "Royal Martyr." King Charles I. of England, beheaded by
Parliament, 1649.
"King James." James II., at that time a fugitive from his throne.
"Covenanting traitors." Adherents of the "Solemn League and Covenant"
adopted by the Scottish Parliament in 1638, and by the English
Parliament in 1643, for the preservation of the reformed religion in
Scotland and the suppression of papacy and prelacy.
=153.= "Burgundy." The limits and character of the region known by
this name have varied greatly at different periods of history. The
Burgundy here mentioned was the great duchy of that name, the capital
of which was Dijon. The Duke of Burgundy at the time of this story was
the famous Charles the Bold, who was its ruler from 1467 to 1477.
After his death it passed into the control of the king of France.
"Flanders." This country, which now forms the southeastern part of the
province of Zealand, Netherlands, was united to Burgundy in 1369.
Upon the death of Charles the Bold it passed to Austria; but since
that time it has been successively acquired by various other
neighboring states.
=154.= "Palisades." Strong long stakes one end of which is set in the
ground and the other sharpened.
"Sappers." Builders of fortifications.
=155.= "Quarrels." Square-headed arrows for crossbows.
"Mantelets." Large shields of rope, wood, or metal.
"Mangonels." Engines for throwing stones or javelins.
=156.= "Barbican." See "Castle" in Webster's International Dictionary.
A tower for defending the entrance to a castle.
"Arbalester." A crossbowman.
"Half ell shaft." A shaft or arrow half an ell in length.
=158.= "Fascines" (f[)a]s´s[=e]nz). Bundles of sticks bound together
and used for filling ditches or raising batteries.
=160.= "Sir Turk." The Turkish catapult just described.
=163.= "Solway." Solway Firth, an arm of the Irish Sea, extending into
Scotland: remarkable for the rapidity of its tides.
=164.= "Graeme" (gr[=a]m). See page 138.