So far in this book we have dealt with meteorites indirectly, chiefly in
connection with their fall, distribution, and recovery. In this chapter,
however, we are shifting our attention to the meteorites themselves, and
will tell what the main types of meteorites are, what meteorites are
made of, what they look like, and how to tell them from ordinary rocks.
First of all, meteorites neither all look alike nor have the same
composition. The general term “meteorite” applies to any mass that
reaches the earth from space. Such masses are made up of metals and
minerals in varying proportions. The term “meteorite” is nearly as
general in meaning as the word “rock,” which geologists apply to bodies,
large and small, that are formed by earth processes and are composed of
various kinds of minerals. Actually, there are almost as many different
kinds of meteorites as there are kinds of rocks; so you can see that in
meteorites a wide range of composition and appearance is possible.
All recognized meteorites belong to one of three main divisions,[7]
_irons_, _stones_, and _stony-irons_.
The irons are composed of an alloy of iron and nickel which may contain
small inclusions of nonmetallic minerals.
[Illustration: Internal structure revealed when the “etching”
process is applied to that type of meteorite known as a “granular
hexahedrite.” See p. 120.]
After a cut section of an iron meteorite has been polished, the flat
surface, except for possible inclusions, is mirror-like and resembles
stainless steel. It appears to be remarkably uniform and uninteresting,
but this appearance is misleading. A characteristic and beautiful
structural pattern develops when such a polished nickel-iron surface is
treated with, for example, a special mixture of nitric acid, alcohol,
and Arabol glue.
This process of treatment is known as “etching.” The different
structural patterns brought out by such etching give us the basis for
classifying the iron meteorites.
If the etching process reveals certain features from which we can infer
a cubic, or 6-faced, crystalline structure, we classify the iron
meteorite as a _hexahedrite_.
If etching produces a certain special pattern from which we can infer an
8-faced, or octahedral, crystalline structure, we recognize the second
subdivision of iron meteorites: the _octahedrites_. This remarkable
pattern was discovered and first described by Alois von Widmanstätten,
of Vienna, in 1808.
The third subdivision of iron meteorites consists of the “structureless”
_ataxites_. (From the Greek for “without arrangement.”) On an ataxite,
etching brings out only a finely granular pattern with a stippled
appearance.
The _stones_ are composed chiefly of minerals that are combinations of
various elements with silicon and oxygen—for example, olivine (Mg,
Fe)₂SiO₄. Meteorites belonging to this division also contain
combinations of elements with oxygen—such as magnesium oxide (MgO) and
aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃). Usually, the stony groundmass contains scattered
specks, grains, and thin veins of the same shiny nickel-iron alloy that
makes up the iron meteorites almost in their entirety.
[Illustration: A. BREZINA & E. COHEN PHOTO
Widmanstätten pattern which emerges when the carefully polished
surface of that type of iron meteorite technically known as a “fine
octahedrite” is “etched.”]
The _stony-irons_, as the name indicates, are an “in-between” division.
Some of the stony-irons, called _pallasites_, are sponge-like but rigid
networks of nickel-iron alloy in which the smoothly rounded openings in
the sponge enclose small gemlike masses of olivine. A cut and polished
section of a pallasite showing round and oval gems of yellow-green
olivine set in a silvery mesh of nickel-iron is a beautiful museum
specimen indeed!
In the _silicate-siderites_, another type of stony-iron, a nickel-iron
matrix is studded with angular fragments, shreds, and splinters of
silicate minerals of all sizes. In the photograph, we can see that each
of the various areas of the nickel-iron matrix (lighter in color)
exhibits its own distinct crystallographic orientation, as is clearly
indicated by the different Widmanstätten patterns.
Even a hasty comparison of polished sections of silicate-siderites and
pallasites will leave no doubt that two quite distinct modes of
formation were required to produce stony-irons of such different types.
Meteoritic nickel-iron has the following average chemical composition.
To the nearest tenth, this alloy contains: Iron (Fe), 90.9%; nickel
(Ni), 8.5%; cobalt (Co), 0.6%. This alloy gave scientists the key to the
development of commercial stainless steels. It may also contain small
amounts of phosphorous, sulfur, copper, chromium, and carbon.
The average chemical composition of stony meteoritic material is
somewhat more complicated. To the nearest tenth, the “stones” contain:
oxygen (O), 41.0%; silicon (Si), 21.0%; iron (Fe), 15.5%; magnesium
(Mg), 14.3%; aluminum (Al), 1.6%; calcium (Ca), 1.8%; sulfur (S), 1.8%.
The stony material may also contain smaller percentages of nickel,
cobalt, copper, carbon, chromium, and titanium.
[Illustration: A. BREZINA & E. COHEN PHOTO
Enlarged section of a stony-iron meteorite showing rounded olivine
grains (dark in color) set in a network of nickel-iron alloy (light
in color).]
[Illustration: A. BREZINA & E. COHEN PHOTO
Polished and etched section of a silicate-siderite showing angular
fragments of silicate minerals (dark in color) imbedded in a
metallic matrix.]
In the stony-iron meteorites, we analyze the nickel-iron and stony
portions separately. On the average, each of these portions has about
the chemical composition that is given for it above.
Mineralogists have identified a variety of familiar minerals in
meteorites. These include olivine, the plagioclase feldspars, magnetite,
quartz, chromite, and, rarely, microscopic diamonds. All of these
minerals are found here on earth in such igneous rocks as basalts and
peridotites.
On the other hand, the meteoritic nickel-iron alloys (kamacite, taenite,
and plessite, for example) and such meteoritic minerals as schreibersite
(nickel-iron phosphide) and daubreelite (iron chromium sulfide) do _not_
occur naturally on the earth.
We should stress here that although unusual _combinations_ of known
elements are present in meteorites, no new _elements_ have been
discovered during the increasingly intensive study of these masses
during the last 150 years.
The majority of stony meteorites show a structure not found in
terrestrial rocks. These meteorites are made up of rounded, shot-like
bodies called _chondrules_ (from the Greek word for “grain”). The
individual chondrules may vary in size from those as large or even
larger than a walnut down to dust-sized grains. The most common size is
about that of peppercorns. The chondrules are often composed of the same
material as the groundmass in which they are imbedded and unless the
meteorite containing them is a very fragile one, they will break with
the rest of the mass, as will sand grains in a quartzite. If the
meteorite is fragile, however, the individual chondrules can generally
be broken out whole. Meteorites containing chondrules are called
_chondrites_.
[Illustration: COURTESY OF AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
Microphotograph of a thin section of a chondrite, showing the
circular, or nearly circular, cross sections of a number of
chondrules, including one of large size at the upper edge of the
section.]
A small percentage of stony meteorites have no chondrules. These
meteorites are known as _achondrites_ (meaning “not chondrites”) and
they resemble terrestrial rocks more closely than the chondrites do.
Some achondrites contain almost no trace whatever of metal, although in
others (for example, the Norton County meteorite, of Chapter 2) small
lumps and specks of nickel-iron are sparsely distributed through the
stony groundmass.
Meteorites are as variable in shape as they are in composition and
structure. Many are cone-shaped; others shield-, bell-, or ring-shaped;
still others pear-shaped. One iron fragment recently recovered from the
Glorieta, New Mexico, fall has been described as “macro-spicular,”
meaning needle-shaped on a very large scale. The photographs opposite
illustrate a number of the commoner forms known. The Glorieta specimen
has been nicknamed “Alley Oop’s shillelagh,” for only a person of great
strength could wield this 13-pounder with ease!
In general, the shape of meteorites depends upon the amount of mass lost
by “evaporation” during passage through the earth’s atmosphere. This
factor, in turn, depends not only upon the speed of transit, but also on
such physical characteristics of the meteorite as its tensile strength
and whether or not it contains certain alloys and minerals that vaporize
more easily than the rest of the meteorite. The ring-shape of the
Tucson, Arizona, iron is believed to have resulted from the “melting
away” of a huge inclusion of stony material during the descent of the
meteorite.
[Illustration: CHICAGO MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY PHOTOS
(BOTTOM RIGHT) INSTITUTE OF METEORITICS PHOTO
A few of the many shapes exhibited by meteorites: ring-shaped,
perforated and highly irregular, pear-shaped, jaw shaped,
needle-shaped.]
When meteorites are recovered and taken to the laboratory for study, one
of the first things scientists do is to weigh them. If a meteorite is
very large, special scales sometimes have to be constructed for this
purpose. Such was the case for the largest meteorite so far weighed: the
giant Ahnighito, Greenland, meteorite, which Peary brought to New York
City by ship. (See Chapter 3.) A specially constructed scale on which
this huge mass is now mounted gives for its weight about 68,000 pounds.
Other meteorites famous for their great size are: the Bacubirito,
Mexico, 27 tons; Willamette, Oregon, 14 tons; Morito, Mexico, 11 tons;
and the Bendego, Brazil, 5 tons. All of these are irons.
The largest stone meteorite so far recovered as one mass is the
so-called Furnas County, Nebraska, stone, which is the principal
fragment of the Norton, Kansas, fall, and weighs about 2,360 pounds.
At the other end of the size-range, investigators have recovered
meteoritic masses weighing no more than a small fraction of a gram. From
a stone shower that occurred at Holbrook, Arizona, field searchers have
found some of the very smallest specimens in anthills. The insects had
carried these tiny meteorites along with sand and garnet grains in
building their hills!
[Illustration: COURTESY OF AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
The Willamette iron, famous for its great size and weight (14
tons), on exhibit at the Hayden Planetarium, New York City. See pp.
36, 39.]
The only sure way to determine whether or not an object _is_ a meteorite
is to have a small piece of it (say, a fragment the size of an egg)
tested chemically and microscopically by an expert on meteorites.
Nevertheless, there are several questions whose answers will help you to
decide whether or not you are on the right track in suspecting that a
“rock” you have found may be a meteorite:
Is your specimen especially heavy?
Does your specimen show a thin blackish or brownish crust on its outer
surface?
Does your “rock” have shallow, oval pits on its outer surface?
If the specimen has a corner knocked off, do you see specks and grains
of metal on the broken surface?
Is your specimen especially heavy? The iron and stony-iron meteorites
are very heavy. A 1-inch cube of iron meteorite weighs approximately 8
times as much as a 1-inch cube of ice. Even the stones, which are only
about half as dense as the irons, are much heavier than ordinary rocks.
Does your specimen show a thin blackish or brownish crust on its outer
surfaces? You will recall that specimens of both the Ussuri and Norton
meteorites showed a “glaze” of fused material which we call fusion
crust. Most freshly-fallen meteorites are covered with such a crust. To
illustrate how this crust forms, consider a snowball that you bravely
hold in your freezing hand until the outer surface melts. If you then
were to leave the snowball outside overnight, the melted outer surface
would freeze into a hard crust.
[Illustration: Piezoglyphs (oval pits resembling thumb-prints) in a
stone meteorite, found at Belly River, Canada. See p. 132.]
In similar fashion, the surface of a meteorite melts during the
blazing-hot part of its flight through the air, only to “freeze” into a
hard, firm coating in the lower, cooler portions of its path. This
hardened coating, the fusion crust, is of much importance. Its presence
is one of the best indications that a “rock” is really a meteorite. From
the character of the fusion crust, experts can piece together a good
deal about what happened to a meteorite on its way down to earth. If you
should be lucky enough to find a meteorite, don’t break off the fusion
crust. A whole encrusted specimen in the hand is worth 200 crustless
fragments scattered at your feet!
Does your “rock” have shallow, oval pits or depressions on its outer
surface? Such features are known technically as _piezoglyphs_ (Greek
_piezein_, to press + _glyph_, to carve) and popularly as
“thumb-prints.” They were formed during the meteorite’s flight through
the atmosphere when the softer portions of its outer shell were “eroded”
away, leaving small scooped-out places. These pittings are very similar
to the prints that would be made by the human hand in a lump of modeling
clay or bread dough. In one case, they gave rise to the false idea that
the meteorite had fallen in a plastic state and that the imprints had
been formed when its finders first pulled the mass out of the ground by
hand.
If the specimen you have found already has a corner knocked off, do you
see specks and grains of metal on the broken surface? Such scattered
bits of nickel-iron (not to be confused with the shiny mica flakes often
seen in igneous rocks) characteristically occur in the grayish or
brownish groundmass of stony meteorites. If your specimen is unbroken,
hold it lightly against a spinning carborundum wheel or use a file to
grind a small flat surface upon it, and then examine this surface for
specks of metal.
If the answers to these questions are yes, then there is a good
possibility that you have found a genuine meteorite.
If meteorites remain buried in the ground for a long period of time,
their characteristic surface-features may weather away. Under such
conditions, iron meteorites develop heavy-layered coatings of rust (iron
oxide) as much as several inches in thickness. If irons stay in the
ground long enough, they may rust away almost completely and turn into
shale balls, like those found near the ancient Wolf Creek, Australia
meteorite crater. (See Chapter 4.) Stone meteorites buried in the ground
for any great length of time may disintegrate and become completely
unrecognizable as meteorites.
The fact that meteorites of all kinds are attacked by weathering has
always argued strongly in favor of their prompt recovery. In the case of
witnessed falls, prompt recovery is even more important, for only thus
can specimens still retaining measurable amounts of various short-lived
radioactivities be made available to physicists eager to investigate
them with the most modern radiometric equipment.