THE RENAISSANCE: PART II
Second Period of the Renaissance—Court of Mary of Hungary—Charles V a
Fleming—Influence of Burgundian Court in Spain—Gilded Leather—
Wealth of the Nobles in the Netherlands—Margaret of Valois at
Namur—Antwerp in the Sixteenth Century—Christopher Plantin—
Cornelius and James Floris—Jerome Cock—Hans and Paul de Vries—
Jacques van Noye—Famous Designers—Characteristics of the Second
Period of the Renaissance—Bedsteads, Tables and Chairs, Armoires,
Cabinets and Chests—Porcelain, Glass and Glass Cupboards—Windows
and Glass-painters—Guicciardini on the Artists of the Low
Countries—Paul de Vries—Crispin de Passe the Elder—the Collaerts—
Wood-carving—Music and Musical Instruments.
The first half of the sixteenth century in western Europe was completely
filled with the ambitions, intrigues and wars of three powerful
sovereigns—Charles V, Francis I and Henry VIII. Each of these was a
chivalrous and luxurious monarch, devoted to the arts, science and
literature. At their courts, the Renaissance received every
encouragement; and at their death, half-way through the century, the
Renaissance is generally regarded as entering on its second period.
Henry and Francis both died in 1547, and Charles in 1558.
On the death of Margaret of Austria in 1530, Charles had intrusted the
government of his Burgundian inheritance to his sister, Mary of Hungary.
She was as liberal a patron of the arts as her aunt Margaret had been.
She kept a splendid court, and was entirely in sympathy with the new
school. The artists who were struggling against foreign influence could
not look to Mary for support. The stream of Flemish pilgrims to Rome was
constantly broadening; and the Romanists under her Regency gained
disciples daily in Brussels, Mechlin, Liège and Antwerp.
At this period, the Low Countries bowed to no foreign authority in the
art domain except the Italian. It must be borne in mind that Charles was
a prince of the House of Burgundy, who had been brought up by his aunt,
the daughter of the heiress of Burgundy, and the Emperor of Austria. He
was a Fleming by birth and training. He was born at Ghent in 1500, and
spent the first sixteen years of his life in the Netherlands. His pride
in his natal town is well known. It is recorded in his famous pun—that
he could put the whole of Paris in his _Gant_ (glove). Spanish
influence, therefore, did not affect the studios and workshops of the
Flemish hives of industry till late in the century; for when Charles
went to Spain, his train was full of Flemings, who influenced Spanish
art; but we find no return influx of Spaniards to modify Flemish art.
The splendid traditions of the Court of Burgundy still dominated in the
Low Countries; and its unbending formality survives in Spain to-day.
When Philip II joined his father Charles V in Brussels in 1548, his
natural inclination led him readily to adopt the multitudinous equipage
and minute and pompous etiquette of his Burgundian ancestors; all this
he retained and transmitted to his descendants. Till the end of the
century, the Flemish Renaissance was a domestic development of purely
Italian inspiration. The principal things that the Netherlands obtained
from the Iberian peninsula were ornamental leather and Oriental wares,
through Lisbon.
The Renaissance gave a great impetus to gilded leathers, the manufacture
of which was still flourishing at Cordova and increasing in the
Netherlands. It would seem that workmen emigrated from Spain to other
countries. Tomaso Gazoni in his _Piazza universale_ (1560) writes
regarding gilded leather: “Some people think that the origin of this
noble work is due to Spain, because from that country come the best
masters of modern times who have obtained the greatest renown in this
kind of work.” A native of Cordova, Ambrosio Morales, writing in 1575,
says: “This manufacture brings much wealth to the town, and also gives a
fine appearance to its principal streets. In truth, when these stamped,
painted and gilded leathers are spread out on large tables to dry in the
sun they make a beautiful sight, for the streets are adorned with the
greatest splendour and variety.”
The inventories of the period show us how important was the use of
leather. Margaret of Austria has at Mechlin in 1527 several pieces of
“_tapisserie de marroquin_,” as we have noted.
The gilded leather was often called _or bazané_ and regarded as a mark
of opulence. For instance, Pierre Binard, a tapestry-worker and author
of a collection of _Noëls_, dedicated to Marguerite, wife of Henri IV,
says in one of his verses:
Au moins est-elle bien coëffée
De fins rézeaux?
Et sa couche est-elle estoffée
De beaux rideaux?
Son ciel n’est-il pas de brodeure
Tout campané?
N’a-t-il pas aussi pour bordeure
L’or bazané?
The nobles vied with royalty in luxury, and the beautiful tapestries,
furniture, gold and silver work, enamels, etc., found ready sale. Such
magnificent homes as the Counts of Egmont excited the anger of the
populace; and those of many successful artists and rich merchants were
hardly inferior.
The clergy did not suffer either. Granvelle, for example, made Bishop of
Arras, and chief adviser to Philip II in all the affairs of the
Netherlands, had a magnificent establishment. His furniture, tapestry
and other personalty amounted to no less than £50,000.
Contemporary travellers are constantly speaking of the startling
splendours they encountered in the Low Countries. When Marguerite of
Valois, Queen of Navarre, who was certainly used to splendour, went to
Spa in 1577, with the excuse to drink the waters, but really to intrigue
in Hainault so as to advance the interests of her brother, the Duke
d’Alençon, in the Netherlands, she was received at Namur by Don Juan of
Austria. When this gallant escort, who rode by her litter, escorted the
Queen to her lodgings, she was “astonished at the magnificence of the
apartments.”[3] A superb hall gorgeously furnished led into a series of
chambers. The bedroom and bed prepared for the Queen were hung with
superb tapestries, which, appropriately enough, represented the Battle
of Lepanto.
Footnote 3:
_Memoirs of Marguerite de Valois._
Antwerp now becomes the centre of commerce, and the town expressed so
much wealth and was so crowded with ships that when the Ambassador from
Venice, Marino Cavalli, landed on the Scheldt, in 1551, he exclaimed in
amazement: “Venice is surpassed!” In 1567, Guicciardini wrote: “One word
alone can define the number of trades exercised in Antwerp; it is the
word _all_!”
In 1560, Antwerp numbered three hundred and sixty painters and
sculptors: artists and decorators flocked thither, and many new
industries were likewise attracted; for instance, Piccol Passo of Urbino
established a factory for Italian majolica; Amould van Ort of Nimeguen,
the celebrated stained-glass maker, transplanted his workshops; Jahn de
Lame of Cremona, Murano glass; and Christopher Plantin of Tours
(1514–89), his printing-presses, from which so many books of decorative
design were issued. He settled in Antwerp in 1549; but from 1576 to the
present day, the business has been conducted in the house known as the
Musée Plantin-Moretus, in the Marché du Vendredi. Plantin’s son-in-law
Moretus or Moerentorf, succeeded him. In 1876, this house, with its
antique furniture, pictures, tapestries and other collections, was
bought by the city of Antwerp for a Museum. The greater part of the
furniture, staircases, mantelpieces, etc., date from the seventeenth
century; but despite this fact and many restorations, this house affords
an interesting picture of the dwelling and office of a rich Fleming of
the sixteenth century. The printing offices are untouched, and two of
the rooms are hung with gilt Spanish leather of the sixteenth century.
In the last chapter we brought the masters of Decorative Art down to the
middle of the sixteenth century. After these came Cornelius and James
Floris, whose family name was de Vriendt. The head of the family,
Cornelius de Vriendt, a stone-cutter, used the name of his grandfather,
Floris de Vriendt, a member of the Guild _des Quatres-Couronnes_ in
1476. Cornelius had four sons: John, a potter, who settled in Spain;
Frans Floris (1518?-70), a painter; James (1524–81), a celebrated
glass-painter; and Cornelius (1514–74), a sculptor and architect, who
was responsible for the Antwerp Town Hall, the house of the Hanseatic
League, the tabernacle of Léan and the rood-loft of the Cathedral of
Tournay.
James was also a skilful engraver, and was particularly noted for his
panels, or compartments, which in his day were such favourite designs.
His drawings were edited by Jerome Cock, and obtained a great success.
Jerome Cock produced a great deal of decorative design in the second
half of this century. His figures are graceful and well disposed, and
his draperies and garlands of fruits and flowers are charmingly
effective. Two of his designs for goldsmiths’ work are reproduced on
Plate XIX and Plate XX.
Cornelius and James Floris developed a new style, still known in
Flanders as the Floris style. The school included many able designers
whose names still survive, including that of Vredemann de Vries. The
ornamentation is principally composed of “_cuirs_” cut into various
shapes and rolled, accompanied by a mixture of figures, animals, birds,
flowers and fruits, all tied together by ornamental motives, ribbons,
draperies, etc., a form of decoration which the Flemish masters carried
to its highest point of perfection.
It was the custom of the day for these masters of ornament to supply
designs for furniture when “the newest thing out” was required. Their
designs that have survived consist chiefly of grotesques, cartouches,
“_cuirs_,” panels, compartments, friezes, trophies, “_pendeloques_” and
other goldsmiths’ motives. Contemporary with Floris were Hans Liefrinck
(1510–80); Cornelis Matsys (1500–56); Jerome Cock (1510–70); John
Landenspelder (_b._ 1511); Adrian Collaert (_b._ 1520); Hans Collaert
(1540–1622). These all worked at Antwerp.
The most famous designers of the Renaissance, however, were the De
Vrieses, father and son, Hans and Paul. Hans Vredemann de Vries,
painter, architect, sculptor, designer, and poet, was born at Leeuwarden
in Friesland (whence his name) in 1527. For five years he studied in
Amsterdam in the studio of Reijnier Gerritsz, the painter, and he
studied architecture under Coeck of Alost. His pictures are valued
highly and are crowded with architectural details. He also studied
painting on glass. Owing to his special aptitudes and varied knowledge,
as well as the skill with which he treated the different styles of
architecture and ornamentation, he may be said to sum up in himself the
great period of the Flemish Renaissance.
Vredemann published a great many collections of designs that are highly
valued for the interesting studies they present of the Flemish Art of
the Renaissance. His sons, Paul and Solomon, followed his style.
De Vries was famous for his leather ornamentation (_cuirs_) and his
_encoinçons_, which apply to oval frames and ornament the corners of
twelve of his twenty-one oval plates among the fifty composing the
collection, _Variae Architecturae formae a Joanne Vredemanni Vriesio,
magno artis hujus studiosorum commodo inventae_. (_See_ Figs. 17 and
18.)
In his own country, he was called the king of architects. He may be
called the Dutch Du Cerceau. He was contemporary with Du Cerceau; and
was apparently greatly influenced by the work of the latter, or it may
be that they both got their inspiration from the same Italian source. A
comparison of the work of the two masters will show individuality in De
Vries. His designs are not so light and graceful as the Frenchman’s.
Besides all kinds of architecture, gardens, wells, fountains, vases,
armour and decorative work for goldsmiths, he designed _Differents
Pourtraicts de Menuiserie à sçavoir_, _Portaux_, _Bancs_, _Tables_,
_Escabelles_, _Buffets_, _Frises_, _Corniches_, _Licts de camp_,
_Ornements à prendre à l’essuoir les mains_, _Fontaines à laver les
mains_. This collection of designs appeared about 1580, and forms a most
valuable record for those who desire to study the style of the early
Renaissance in the Netherlands. It is noticeable that the change is not
so much in the general form of the furniture as in the ornamentation. As
an example, let us take the bedroom (Plate X). This was published in
1580; but it evidently belongs to the transitional period, since the
furniture reveals almost as many Gothic as Renaissance features.
It will be noticed that De Vries expressly styles his design a _modern_
bedroom; so that it deserves study as the latest novelty about the
middle of the sixteenth century. The first thing that strikes one is
that though the ornamental details of Gothic tracery have almost
disappeared, yet the linen-fold in the panelling is everywhere. Even the
_dressoir_ on the left with its Classic columns and spiralled caryatides
has Gothic panels; and the presses between the fireplace and the window
have Gothic panels with a Renaissance daïs. The long heavy chests that
serve as benches also belong to Mediaeval days. The massive table looks
transitional also. It is also to be noticed that the furniture cannot
yet be designated as “moveables”; it is still an integral part of the
carpentry work that lines the walls of the room. The chair beside the
bed is the sole note that tones down its severity. At the time the plate
was published (1580), the Renaissance was in full flower, and its
interest for us lies chiefly in the disposition of the furniture and the
evidence it supplies of Gothic tenacity. The floor is tessellated
diagonally with squares of wood or stone. The chimney-piece with its
funnel-shaped top is essentially the same as represented in miniatures
of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The _credence_ or _dressoir_
is opposite to the door, the bed, well protected by woodwork and
curtains against draughts, is close to the fireplace, and the table in
front of the window. A general effect of coldness is noticeable, due to
the almost total lack of upholstery; but this is doubtless owing to the
artist’s intent to emphasize the woodwork.
Though De Vries was the most important designer of furniture in the
Netherlands during the sixteenth century, he was by no means the only
one to influence the taste of the day. There were many architects,
goldsmiths and engravers whose designs contributed to the development of
the Renaissance style. One of these was Jacques van Noye. He was
employed by Cardinal Granvelle, Bishop of Arras, to embellish the palace
in Besançon, built by his father, Sebastian van Noye, also a notable
architect.
In 1550, Van Noye became architect of Philip II; and called to Spain by
the King, died in Madrid. One of his important works was the palace that
the Cardinal erected at Brussels on the Coperbeke.
Other designers in decorative art who lived during the second half of
the sixteenth century were Mark Geraerts (1530–90); Hendrick van Schoel;
Martin de Vos (1531–1603); G. Tielt (1580–1630); Cornelius Grapheus
(1549-?); Baltazar Silvius (_circ._ 1554); Guilhelmus de la Queweelerie
(_circ._ 1560); Peter Miricenis (1520–66); Hans Bol (1535–93); Abraham
de Bruyn (1538-?); Crispin de Passe, the Elder (1536-?); Peter van der
Borcht (1540–1608); Peter Baltens (1540–79); Paul van Wtanvael (_circ._
1570); Nicholas de Bruyn (1560–1635); Clement Perrete (_circ._ 1569);
Assuerus van Londerseel (_b._ 1548); Jerome Wierix (_b._ 1551); John
Wierix (_b._ 1550); John Sadeler (1550–1610); Raphael Sadeler
(1555–1628); Ægidius Sadeler (1570–1629); Dominic Custode (_b._ 1560);
Ger. Groningus; Cornelis Galle (1570–1641); Philip Galle (1537–1612);
Theodore Galle (_b._ 1560); Cornelis Dankherts (_b._ 1561); John Sambuci
(_circ._ 1574); Francis Sweert (_circ._ 1690); Jodocus Hondius
(1563–1611); James Hannervogt, and some anonymous engravers.
[Illustration:
Fig. 19: BED, by J. STRADEN; Figs 20–22: TABLES, by DE VRIES; Fig. 23:
CHAIR AND FOOTSTOOL, by DE VRIES; Figs. 24–25: FLEMISH CHAIRS.
]
Of the above, the most prolific were the Galles. They were particularly
rich in frames, but their ornamentation already shows signs of the
Decadence; and the work of Philip alone shows traces of the pure
Renaissance. Most of these masters of ornamental design were natives of,
or were attracted to, Antwerp; though some of them travelled far afield.
Custode worked at Augsburg; Ægidius Sadeler died at Prague; Geraerts
died in England; Cornelius Bos worked in Rome; and Crispin de Passe, the
Elder, worked in Utrecht, Amsterdam, Cologne, Paris and London.
In the second period of the Renaissance, the general effect is more
severe and geometrical; the projections are more restrained, and the
general form of furniture more rectangular. The vertical lines are more
conspicuous than the horizontal lines; and columns with elongated shafts
and delicate flutings or grooves replace human figures that in the first
period of the Renaissance act as uprights and supports. The bed on Plate
XIV is a good example of the second period.
There is also during the second period a great, and often elegant, use
of ceramics. Some pieces of furniture, particularly cabinets, are
decorated with incrustations of stones, amber, enamelled work and even
Venetian glass.
Gothic decoration still lingers for a time in the ordinary bedsteads
(_see_ Plate X) but those of the new fashion show all the popular
ornaments of the Renaissance. Caryatides sometimes appear as columns;
and sometimes and ever more frequently as time wears on, slender pillars
cut in the form of balusters, lances or distaffs, often grooved, and
more or less decorated with carving. Later in the century, the columns
are frequently enveloped in the same material as the hangings, which
become so important that the sculptor and joiner give place to the
upholsterer and embroiderer. The beds are so high, or built so high with
mattresses, that it is impossible to get into them without the aid of
bed-steps.
A glance at Plate II will inform us that the bed of the fifteenth
century depends more for its effect upon the curtains and other
draperies than on the framework. In the time of the Renaissance, we find
the bedstead of supreme importance. It is carved in the richest fashion,
and is often enriched with gilding and painting; it is also adorned with
marquetry. The mattresses, bolsters and pillows are of down or feathers,
the sheets and blankets of finest linen and wool, for which Flanders is
famous; and the hangings are of silk, velvet, tapestry, serge, or gilded
leather. The Renaissance bed is never allowed to stand in an alcove: it
is far too handsome a piece of furniture for that. Its canopy, often
richly carved, is rectangular and exactly the size of the bed, which is
large; and it is no longer suspended by cords from the ceiling, but
rests on carved or grooved columns. It is usually finished with a
projecting cornice, variously ornamented, and to this cornice the
curtains are attached. In Fig. 19 and Plate XII, we see exactly how
these curtains were hung. These beds, from engravings by J. Stradan
(1578), also show us how the curtains were looped up in the daytime, how
the square pillows were placed formally at the foot of the bed, and the
shape of the round bolster. These beds could be completely enclosed by
curtains.
[Illustration:
PLATE XII.—_Bedstead, Chairs and Table, by J. Stradan._
]
The bed in Fig. 19 is interesting as an example of a Renaissance bed
without supporting corner posts. The canopy and curtains are evidently
suspended from the ceiling by cords in the old style, for there is no
woodwork visible above the carved head-board. This is very unusual and
is doubly interesting as the bed in Plate XII, by the same artist, is
massive in form, and the dome is supported by strong Classic columns. In
the latter design the curtains are looped around the columns and a
pillow is placed on the bolster at the back. The canopy is dome-shaped
and the top of each column is decorated with a “_pomme_,” destined to
develop and survive as a decoration for the bedstead. The head-board is
quite ornate, and the bedstead, like that in Fig. 19, stands upon a low
platform.
A similar dome-topped bed appears in the inner room in the background of
Plate XXIV.
One of De Vries’ designs for a bed is reproduced on Plate XIII. It has a
heavy panelled head-board surmounted by a pediment with _pommes_; and
the four supporting posts consist of turned caryatides. The bedstead
proper that holds the mattress and other bedding is supported
independently by vase-shaped legs. The frieze of the canopy is decorated
with scroll-work. In this style of bed, the curtains did not hide the
elaborately carved woodwork; they hung from the cornice and feet
_inside_ the outer posts. The hangings could thus be very sumptuous
without detracting from the effect of the carved woodwork. Plate XIV,
which represents a beautiful bed of this period, massive and richly
carved, shows the same arrangement of curtains. It should be borne in
mind that wherever the framework is richly carved, curtains were never
intended to hide it. This magnificent specimen, from the Rijks Museum,
Amsterdam, is of beautiful proportions. The ornamentation is chaste and
in perfect harmony, consisting of carved panels, cornice and Corinthian
columns. The woodwork is walnut and the hangings are pale blue damask.
The Plantin Museum in Antwerp contains an _armoire_ and a bed after the
designs of De Vries.
Another De Vries bed in the now dispersed Minard of Ghent collection had
a canopy and balusters and the central part was arranged in the form of
an _armoire_ with two shutters decorated with low reliefs of religious
subjects. Upon the upper gallery was a cartouche held by two angels, and
on this cartouche the inscription, “Vriese inv. 1565.”
[Illustration:
PLATE XIII.—_Bedstead, by De Vries._
]
An interesting example of Renaissance work is the bedstead on Plate XI.
The distaff or lance-shaped columns shoot boldly upward from a floral
calix that stands on the head of a mermaid at the foot, and the head of
a merman at the head of the bed. A frame for a dome-shaped canopy is
connected with the four posts by a tester. The bedstead is panelled and
stands on four large square blocks. In the centre of the headboard is a
cartouche for a coat-of-arms; in the centre of the footboard the head of
a cherub is carved. The peculiar characteristic of the decoration of
this piece of furniture is that the scrolls are all carved in the shape
of the human ear. This is an early example of the _genre auriculaire_,
which was destined to become popular in Flanders and Germany. On this
piece of furniture the ear is omnipresent—on the head and foot board, on
the sweeps of the canopy and on the square feet—wriggling, squirming and
unrestful.
Folding-beds are frequently mentioned in the inventories. Margaret of
Austria (1523), had two wooden camp or folding-beds.
The Flemings were particularly skilful in the production of tables and
chairs. We have now come a long distance from the simple board and
trestles of the past, for we find dining-tables, writing-tables,
bureau-tables, card-tables, chair-tables, bench-tables (_tables à
banc_), round tables, square tables, oval tables, tables that stand on
one foot, tables that stand on three feet, and tables of walnut, oak,
maple, cedar, cypress, marble and even silver. We also find tables of
mosaic work and of marquetry and tables beautifully carved and
embellished with gold.
The drawing-table was much in vogue. It was composed of extra leaves
superimposed on lower ones that could be drawn forward so that the top
leaves could fall into the space they made and form with the lower
leaves, thus lengthened, one continuous surface. The mechanism by which
these leaves were lengthened and dropped was very intricate and
ingenious. Jacques Wecker, a physician of Colmar, in his treatise _De
Secretis_ (Bâle, 1582), says: “One must not despise the make of these
tables that I have often seen in Ghent in Flanders.”
The tables designed by De Vries and reproduced in Figs. 20, 21 and 22,
are a great advance on the one that appears in his _Cubiculum_. (Plate
X.) The form is much the same as those in Figs. 20 and 21, but the
linenfold has given way to panels and pilasters of pure Renaissance
character and the corner supports of sphinxes and animals and vases have
no memory of the Gothic age. Fig. 22 shows us a table of an entirely
different character. It is much lighter and has drawers. With its
foot-rails it is well adapted for a dining-table.
A much more ornate specimen of this period called a “fan-shaped table,”
(“_table à l’éventail_”) is owned by the Dijon Museum. It is of
Burgundian workmanship. The support, which still shows traces of
gilding, is formed of an eagle with outspread wings standing between two
winged chimaera with lions’ paws, these paws connected with a
straining-rail, or stretcher. The open-work shelf is ornamented with
leaves and a mascaron, and the two upper and lower straining rails are
ornamented with a very clearly defined and handsome decoration. The top
of the table is surrounded by a thread of marquetry.
Folding-tables were also in use; in Margaret of Austria’s inventory,
mention is made of “a little table in the Spanish fashion which opens
and closes.”
[Illustration:
PLATE XIV.—_Bedstead._
RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.
]
Chairs are still heavy and carved more or less richly. Two typical
specimens appear in Plate XII. As shown in these examples, the seats and
backs were often covered with stamped leather, velvet, silk, or some
woollen material and ornamented with tassels. The covers are tacked to
the frame by means of large-headed nails that also form part of the
decoration. A chair and footstool by Vredemann de Vries, of very
characteristic model, are shown in Fig. 23. The chair is three-cornered,
with a triangular seat, and the legs are connected with straining-rails.
It much resembles the _voyeuse_ of which Cardinal Mazarin had several;
and which was again popular in the days of Louis XVI, in France and
elsewhere. It was essentially a chair for a man, who faced the back and
rested his arms on the top rail.
A Flemish chair of the second half of the sixteenth century is
reproduced in Figs. 24 and 25. This is pure Renaissance in its simplest
and certainly its least elegant form. The legs consist of Doric columns
connected by stretchers close to the ground. The back slants, and is of
somewhat confused carved decoration consisting of a mascaron and Classic
architectural and floral motives.
When not built in the panels of the room, the _armoire_ bears a very
close likeness to the large double cabinet with doors, which is, as we
have seen, merely a chest-upon-chest, and which we shall find developing
into the great Dutch _kas_ of the seventeenth century. Plate XV shows
the great double cabinet, or _armoire_, of the Renaissance with carved
panels, pillars and caryatides. This stands on ball feet. It is of the
same period as the bed represented in Plate XIV.
A magnificent specimen of the late sixteenth century, now in the _Musée
des Arts Décoratifs_, Paris, is reproduced in Plate XVIII. This is in
two stories and is frankly architectural. The doors of the _armoire_, or
cabinet, are decorated to look like windows, and the niches and
pilasters lend their aid in making the front of this piece of furniture
look like the façade of a handsome Renaissance residence.
Cabinets or _armoires_ designed by De Vries are reproduced in Plate XIX
and Plate XX. As usual, we have a large choice in central and side
supports, pediments and panels. There is a good variety of mascarons for
the cabinet-maker to select from. It will be noticed that the “_cuirs_,”
so popular with the designers of the period, enter largely into the
decoration of the doors and drawers.
Spanish influence was now making itself felt. Hispano-Flemish carving
appears on many a panel and drawer front towards the end of this
century. Characteristic carving of this style is shown in Fig. 26 and
Fig. 27.
Perhaps of all kinds of furniture, Flanders excelled in making cabinets.
Antwerp was especially renowned for them. The cabinet is, of course, an
object of special luxury, for the display of little articles of value
possessed only by the rich. Whether carved or inlaid, its shelves were
lined with crimson velvet, cloth of gold, green taffeta, or beautifully
tooled leather; and very frequently silvered ribbon twined into a kind
of geometrical lattice-work into the initials or monogram of the owner
of the cabinet was hung behind the glass and supplied with hooks from
which jewels, watches, pocket-mirrors and other pretty trinkets were
suspended. A cabinet collection in the sixteenth century included
watches, jewels, rings, bracelets, necklaces, pearls from the Orient,
gold and silver work, buttons, perfumed gloves, costly musk and amber,
scent-bottles, pomanders on handsome chains, small scissors, pocket
knives, pocket mirrors, coral beads, rosaries of rock-crystal, little
books, _eau de Damas_, _eau de rose_, _eau d’oeillet_, and other
delicate essences, medals, little pictures, rare stones, fans, etc.
[Illustration:
PLATE XV.—_Armoire._
RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.
]
French noblemen had such a fancy for collecting Flemish cabinets that
Henri IV sent French workmen to the Netherlands to learn the art of
making these choice pieces of furniture, and particularly the trick of
carving in ebony. On their return, he established them in the Louvre.
The first was Laurent Stabre; another was Pierre Boulle (uncle of the
great André Charles Boulle), supposed to be of Flemish origin. Jean
Macé, who called himself “_menuisier-ébéniste de Blois_,” was also given
a studio in the Louvre, “on account of his long practice of this art in
the Low Countries, and the skill he has shown in his cabinet-work in
ebony and other woods of various colours that he has presented to the
Regent Queen.”
Another cabinet-maker who lived in the Louvre was Pierre Golle, a native
of the Netherlands, whose name was originally Goler, and who left
Holland at Mazarin’s request to settle in Paris. He made various
artistic pieces for the Dauphin, the great Cardinal and other patrons of
art.
Burgundy was also remarkable for its cabinets, and made a specialty of
wall-cabinets that hung at the sides of a room on invisible supports. A
famous specimen of Burgundian work was bought several years ago at the
Soltykoff sale by the Baron Sellières, for no less than 16,500 francs!
It was a large double cabinet, the two parts of nearly equal dimensions,
both ornately carved with satyrs, fruits, garlands, palms, Tritons and
Nereids.
The chest is as important as ever. It is found in every room in the
house. In it are kept household linen, clothing and many treasures and
gifts. When the top is flat, in which case the article is still called
_huche_, it often serves as a seat. Although the chest is finely carved
in the sixteenth century, it never attains the sumptuousness nor the
delicacy of either _dressoir_ or cabinet; it always remains a robust
piece of furniture. It is decorated with architectural motives,
fantastic arabesques, panels ornamented with bas-reliefs representing
Biblical or mythological scenes, allegorical subjects, pilasters in the
form of terms, and not unfrequently mascarons. Sometimes chests are
covered with stamped leather and sometimes decorated with marquetry.
Flemish chests were in great demand in France. In an inventory, we learn
that Marguerite des Bordes, Bordeaux, had, in 1589, a “_bahut de
Flandres_,” barred with iron bands, two locks and keys; George Beaunon,
a merchant of Bordeaux, had, in 1607, “more than one _coffre de
Flandres_,” garnished with bands of white iron and three little
“_cassettes de boys de Flandres_” were owned by Nicholas Lemerotel of
St. Malo in 1638.
[Illustration:
PLATE XVI.—_Glass Cupboard, or Vitrine, by De Vries._
]
Porcelain as yet was very rare, though kings and rich nobles had a few
pieces of this ware on their shelves. Philip II had quite a respectable
collection of ceramics, and wealthy Flemings were always fond of foreign
and domestic wares of this nature. Palissy was at work and his
productions were highly prized. The Netherlands had a brisk trade by sea
with Portugal, and through Lisbon considerable quantities of porcelain
were finding their way into the cupboards of the wealthy. Venetian glass
also was highly prized, so that we are not astonished to find De Vries
devoting a good deal of attention to designing _vitrines_, or small
cupboards with glass fronts, for the preservation and safe display of
glass, china and earthenware. In many instances, these were elaborately
carved with all the Renaissance ornamentation. Four handsome glass
cupboards or _vitrines_, designed by De Vries, are shown in Plate XVI
and Plate XVII. In the centre of the broken pediments, we see Bacchus
and Cupid. The supporting sides consist of Classic columns, pilasters or
caryatides; and all the decoration is in harmony with the rest of the
furniture of this period.
On looking over the pictures by the great artists of the Netherlands, we
cannot help noticing their delight in painting glass. The play of light
and shade, and direct and reflected rays in flasks, bottles, vases,
goblets and wine glasses of varied form strongly appealed to the great
masters of _genre_ and still life.
The Flemings of the sixteenth century undoubtedly manufactured much
glass for home consumption and export. England took all they and Germany
and France could supply. Queen Elizabeth tried to attract glass-blowers
to settle in her realm. The first recorded name to accept the invitation
is that of Cornelius de Launoy. In 1567, the Queen sent to the Low
Countries for Jean Quarré, a native of Antwerp, and other workers in
glass, to establish a factory for making the same kind of glass as
existed in France.
The windows not only of churches but of civic and palatial buildings
were beautified with the work of great artists. Even in more modest
dwellings, the windows of the hall, studio, or living-room were
decorated with the coat-of-arms of the owner.
Designs for painted windows formed by no means an unimportant part of
the activities of a great artist; in fact, they held the same rank as
cartoons for tapestry. In 1567, Guicciardini notes as follows:
“But it is also proper to mention some eminent artists in encaustic or
painting on glass, inasmuch as this department has also its pretensions
to importance; and Vasari has observed that the Flemings have brought it
to perfection. For, not to dwell on the beauty and vivacity of the
colours, they invented the mode of burning them into the glass, so as to
be safe from the corrosion of water, wind and even time; which was not
the case when they were only tempered with gum and some other mixture.
And the Flemings also invented the manner of making leaden casements.
“The first eminent painters on glass were Arnold van Hordt of Nymwegen,
and a citizen of Antwerp, a great imitator of the Italian school and the
first inventor of the art of burning colours into crystalline glass.
Theodore Jacobs Felaet, an artist of eminent invention; Theodore Stass
of Campen; John Ack of Antwerp, who executed the windows in St. Gudule’s
Church and the Chapel of the Sacrament at Brussels; Cornelis of
Bois-le-Duc.
[Illustration:
PLATE XVII.—_Glass Cupboard, or Vitrine, by De Vries._
]
“There still flourish Cornelis Dale, who, with singular art, burns any
colours, not only into glass, but into crystal, so that they appear like
painting in oil; and his designs are elegant; Jodoc Vereg, a skilful
artist, employed by the Emperor; James Florence, all of Antwerp. John
Stass, son of the above Theodore and the heir of his father’s talents;
John Zele of Utrecht. Nor in architecture and sculpture have excellent
artists been wanting in the Netherlands. Such were Sebastian Oje of
Utrecht, the celebrated architect to Charles V, and afterwards to Philip
his son. He, to his great praise, planned the fortifications of Hesdin,
Charlmont, and Philipville, strong towns on the frontiers. William Keur
of Gouda, a good architect, a superior sculptor. Among others were John
Dale, a sculptor and poet; Lucas van Leyden, a celebrated engraver
(1495–1533); William of Antwerp, a famous architect. There still
flourish James Bruck of St. Omers, a man of noble birth and an excellent
sculptor and architect, who, while the Queen of Hungary governed the
Netherlands, planned Bossu and Marimont and some grand buildings. John
Bologne of Douay, his disciple, now employed by the Duke of Florence.
John Minsheeren of Ghent, an excellent architect and sculptor, whose son
Lucas, is an eminent painter, the inventor of many things and excels in
poetry; Matthew Mandemaker of Antwerp, a famous sculptor, in the service
of the King of the Romans; Cornelis Florence, brother of Francis, an
excellent sculptor and architect, diligent and attentive, who has the
praise of first bringing from Italy the art of accurately rendering the
insides of caves called by the Italians _grotescas_. Henry Paschen of
Antwerp, an excellent architect, who designed the Palace and office of
the Hansa towns in Antwerp, and was afterwards called to London to plan
the Exchange; Lambert Suaf of Liège, a good architect and engraver;
James Iongeling of Antwerp, an excellent sculptor and statuary, who
lately made those wonderful brass statues of the seven planets and
Bacchus which the magistrates of Antwerp presented to the Prince of
Parma; William Paludan, brother of the above Henry, a great and accurate
sculptor, whose son Raphael is also of high repute; John Sart of
Nymegen, an excellent sculptor, as are Simon of Delft and Jodoc Janson
of Amsterdam; George Robins of Yperen, Theodore Volcart Cornhert and
Philip Galle, both of Haarlem, exquisite engravers.”
Guicciardini continues: “The others it would be prolix to enumerate,”
and informs us that most of these artists visit Italy. “Some return
loaded with wealth and honour to their native country,” while “others go
to Great Britain and Germany, but chiefly to Denmark, Sweden, Norway,
Poland and even Muscovy, not to mention those who, allured by honours
and rewards, visit France, Spain and Portugal.”
The younger De Vries (Paul), was born at Antwerp in 1554. He designed
_Plusieurs menuiseries comme Portaulx, Garderobes, Buffets, Chalicts,
Tables, Arches, Selles, Bancs, Escabelles, Rouleaux à pendre, touailles,
Casses à vertes et beaucoup d’autres ouvrages_. The style of furniture
shown in the works of the De Vrieses lasted till Rubens arose.
[Illustration:
PLATE XVIII.—_Flemish Armoire._
Figs. 26–27: HISPANO-FLEMISH DRAWERS.
]
Crispin de Passe, or Van der Passe the elder, was born in Arnemuiden
about 1560, and was a pupil of Dirk Coornhert (born in Amsterdam in
1522, died in Gouda in 1590). He left a great number of compositions and
many remarkable portraits painted in Germany, France, and England, as
well as in Holland. A writer, too, of considerable merit, he published
many works which he illustrated with his own engravings. In 1585, he
became a member of the Guild of St. Luke of Antwerp. Being such a fine
engraver, it is not astonishing to find that he excelled in
_niello_-work. His composition in this medium, representing “The Five
Senses,” resembles in its delicacy the lace, embroidery and
incrustations of ivory of the same period. His patterns, sometimes in
relief and sometimes in depression, sometimes in white and sometimes in
black, are very beautiful. Crispin de Passe had three sons: Crispin
(born in Utrecht in 1585); William (1590); and Simon (1591), all of whom
were excellent engravers. His daughter, Madeleine (born 1583), was also
a good engraver.
Among the famous engravers also were the Collaerts. Adrian Collaert,
born in Antwerp in 1560, was admitted to the Guild of St. Luke in 1580,
and died in 1618. He studied in Italy and on his return composed and
engraved many designs of great merit. His son, Hans, born in Antwerp,
was also a designer and engraver of note. He worked until 1622. His son,
William, was a famous engraver.
Adrian Collaert’s designs for goldsmith’s work, silver plate and all
artistic products of that nature had a great vogue, and worthily
represent the decorations of the Flemish Renaissance. Two of his
characteristic designs are reproduced in Plate XXI and Plate XXII.
Wood-carving continued to be one of the glories of Flemish Art.
Sixteenth century pulpits, bishops’ thrones and choir-stalls still exist
in many of the old churches. The names of some of the masters of the
chisel who executed these beautiful works have been preserved, and may
properly be recalled here.
St. Martin’s Church at Ypres contains beautiful stalls carved by Victor
Taillebert. He received four thousand florins in payment for his work.
Colyn van Cameryck made a magnificent marble mantelpiece for the Kampen
Town Hall. The work was done between 1543 and 1545.
Jean van der Scheldein, carpenter and sculptor, made a monumental door
in the Hôtel de Ville, Oudenarde, in the Renaissance style in 1531. This
is ornamented with columns, a pediment, figures and rectangular panels
adorned with arabesques in the best taste and with masterly execution.
Peter van Dulcken carved the beautiful stalls for the _échevins_, and
the balustraded screen of the Nimeguen Town Hall, in the second half of
the sixteenth century. These are the finest that have escaped
destruction except those of the Kampen Town Hall, which are even more
elaborate.
[Illustration:
PLATE XIX.—_Cabinet, or Armoire, by De Vries; Design for Goldsmith’s
Work, by Jerome Cock._
]
The Netherlands early enjoyed a reputation for music, and from about
1450 to 1550 the most celebrated “_maîtres de chapelle_” came from the
Low Countries. They were engaged in the churches and in the courts of
kings and establishments of the nobility in France, Germany, Italy,
Hungary, Denmark and Spain. Guicciardini says they had brought music “to
a state of perfection,” and praises the melodious songs of the men and
the skill of the women who played all kinds of instruments. He also pays
tribute to their knowledge of harmony and proficiency in composition and
says that Flemish musicians are at the “Court of every Christian
prince,” and he then gives a list of famous musicians of the Low
Countries. These are “Giovanni del Tintore di Nivelli, Iusquino di Pres,
Obrecht Ockegem, Ricciafort, Adriano Willaert, Giovanni Monton,
Verdelot, Gomberto Lupus Lupi, Cortois Crequillon, Clementi non Papa and
Cornelio Canis.” To these, “who are now dead,” he adds the following
list of living celebrities: Cipriano de Rove, Gian le Coick, Filippo de
Monti, Orlando di Lassus, Mancicourt, Iusquino Baston, Christiano
Hollando, Giaches di Waet, Bonmarche, Severino Cornetto, Piero du Hot,
Gherardo di Tornout, Huberto Waelrant, Giachetto di Berckem vicino
d’Anversa, Andrea Peuermage and Cornelio Verdonk and “many other masters
of music who are celebrated throughout the world.”
This universal love of music is attested by the Dutch and Flemish
masters. In tavern scenes, as well as scenes of domestic and social
life, musical instruments are frequently introduced. To catalogue the
works of Jan Steen, Terborch, Teniers, Metsu, Van Mieris and other
painters of the seventeenth century directly inspired by music, such as
musical parties, harpsichord lessons, duets, lute-players, ladies at the
spinet, etc., would be quite a task.
No home of wealth was complete without musical instruments, and owing to
the exquisite paintings with which the case and top, both inside and
out, were ornamented, the clavecin, harpsichord, or spinet was
frequently the handsomest and costliest piece of furniture in the house.
The case and legs were subject to changes in fashion. Sometimes the
stand is simple with heavy ball feet connected by stretchers, as shown
in Plate XXIII, a _Lady Playing the Spinet_, by J. M. Molenaer, in the
Rijks Museum, Amsterdam. Sometimes the instrument stands on baluster
legs and arches; and sometimes case and stand are of lacquer in the
prevailing taste for the Chinese style. The top was always delicately
painted, as shown in the picture just referred to; and it is interesting
to note that in nearly every case where a lady is playing an instrument,
she rests her foot upon a foot-warmer.
Without being able to see the internal mechanism, it is difficult to
define the precursors of the pianoforte from their outward appearance in
the pictures.
These instruments were so beautifully decorated that the clavecin-makers
of Antwerp ranked as artists and became members of the St. Luke’s Guild
of that city. They were first enrolled as “painters and sculptors,” and
not as clavecin-makers.
According to a pamphlet entitled _Recherches sur les Facteurs de
Clavecins et les Luthiers d’Anvers_, by the Chevalier Léon de Burbure
(Brussels, 1863), at the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the
sixteenth centuries, the clavichord was in greater vogue than the
clavecin, and about 1500 the clavecin had been made into the clavichord
shape in Venice and called the spinet. The new form soon travelled to
the Netherlands and superseded the clavichord.
[Illustration:
PLATE XX.—_Cabinet, or Armoire, by De Vries; Design for Goldsmith’s
Work, by Jerome Cock._
]
A clavecin-maker named Josse Carest or Joos Kerrest was admitted to the
St. Luke’s Guild as “a sculptor and painter of clavichords” as noted in
_De Liggeren en andere Historische Archieven der Antwerpsche Sint
Lucasgilde_, by Rombouts en van Lerius (Antwerp and The Hague, 1872),
and another Carest had been admitted in 1519 as an apprentice painter of
clavecins. In 1557, Josse Carest headed a petition of clavecin-makers to
be admitted to the St. Luke’s Guild as clavecin-makers and not as
painters and sculptors. They were accepted. Their pupils and all who
were subsequently admitted had to exhibit “master-works,” namely:
“clavecins” that were oblong or with bent sides (square or grand, we
should call them now) or to quote directly “_viercante oft gehoecte
clavisimbale_.” These had to be five feet long at least and made in the
workshops of master-experts (two of whom were yearly elected) and to
have the trade mark or device of the maker “_syn eygen marck teecken,
oft wapene_.” This mark, known as rose, rosetta or rosace, usually made
of gilded lead, was placed in the sound-holes.
The most famous clavecin-makers of Antwerp, and, indeed, of The
Netherlands, were the Ruckers, who worked between 1579 and 1667, or
later. The name is variously written. The most celebrated was Hans
Ruckers, who was admitted a member of the St. Luke’s Guild in 1579 as
“Hans Ruyckers, clavisinbal makerre.” His beautiful instruments were
bought in France and England, as well as in the Low Countries; and it is
thought that Queen Elizabeth owned one. In England they were called
virginals. Many of the Ruckers’ instruments are still in existence,
owned by collectors and museums. The Museum of the Brussels Conservatory
owns an oblong one, dated 1610. This has two keyboards, one above the
other, and consists of 4½ octaves, and white naturals. The Museum of the
Paris Conservatory has one of 5 octaves, black naturals, and bent side,
dated 1590; The Musée du Steen, Antwerp, owns an oblong one dated 1611;
and Messrs. Chappell and Co., of London, have an undated oblong of 4
octaves. This stands on an arcade with six balusters and is decorated
with fine paintings. A similar instrument on Plate XXIII_a_, by this
maker, is in the Steinert collection at Yale University, U.S.A. It is a
double spinet of four octaves. The painting on the lid represents the
favourite Apollo and Marsyas contest. Above, and below the movable
spinet are painted landscapes with children dancing. The little spinet
on the left, which sets into the spinet proper, is tuned one octave
higher than the one on the right. In performing upon both instruments at
once, the smaller instrument is removed and set upon a table. On the
jack rails of both spinets may be read: “_Johannes Ruqvers me fecit_.”
Martinus Vander Biest entered the St. Luke’s Guild of Antwerp in 1558 as
one of the ten clavecin-makers. An oblong clavecin, made by him in
Antwerp is in the Museum at Nuremberg, and is signed and dated Martinus
Vander Biest, 1580.
[Illustration:
PLATE XXI.—_Design for Goldsmith’s Work, by Adrian Collaert._
]
Hans Ruckers the younger, known as Jean, because he used the initials J.
R. in his rose, was also a master in the St. Luke’s Guild of Antwerp. He
made beautiful instruments from 1617 to 1642. These were of both shapes,
bent side and oblong, were furnished with one or two keyboards and were
sometimes decorated with paintings in Vernis Martin. A beautiful example
with two keyboards, 4¾ octaves, black naturals, owned by the Baroness
James de Rothschild. The case and top are black and gold lacquer in the
Chinese style, and the painting inside the top is said to be by Lancret.
It is dated 1630 and inscribed “Joannes Ruckers me fecit, Antverpiae.”
Another by the same maker, also in a black and gold case, is owned by
the South Kensington Museum. This is bent side, has one keyboard and is
dated 1639. The Museum of the Paris Conservatory also owns a bent side
clavecin, made by Jean Ruckers, of two keyboards and 5 octaves. This is
painted outside by Teniers and Brouwer and inside by Breughel and Paul
Bril. To him has also been attributed a spinet in the Cluny Museum with
bent side, one keyboard, 4½ octaves and blackwood case incrusted with
ivory.
In 1638, the private secretary of Charles I, Sir F. Windebank, had a
long correspondence with a painter named Balthazar Gerbier, then in
Brussels, regarding the purchase of a virginal in Antwerp for the King
of England. Gerbier described one made by Hans Ruckers for the Infanta.
It had a double keyboard and four stops and was beautifully painted. The
picture inside the cover was Cupid and Psyche by Rubens. This instrument
was bought for £30, but was unsatisfactory on account of insufficient
compass. Gerbier was asked to exchange it, but he wrote back that the
maker had not another on sale.
Andries Ruckers, another son of the elder Hans, was born in 1579. In
1619, the Guild of St. Luke ordered a clavecin from him. The Museum of
the Brussels Conservatory owns one dated 1613, with one keyboard and
four octaves. The Musée Archéologique of Bruges owns a bent side one,
dated 1624, of 5 octaves and 3 stops, and the Musée du Steen, Antwerp
has a bent side one, undated, with 3 stops and two keyboards, the lower
one 4 octaves and the upper 3¾ octaves. In the South Kensington Museum
there is another by Andries Ruckers, said to have been Handel’s. This is
dated 1651, and inscribed _Sic transit Gloria Mundi_ and _Acta Virum
Probant_. On the belly of the instrument, of the bent side shape, a
concert of monkeys is represented. One monkey is conducting.
Andries Ruckers the younger, born in 1617, married a daughter of Dirck
de Vries, also a clavecin-maker. The Château de Perceau, near Cosné,
owned a bent side clavecin by Andries the younger, dated 1655. Its case
was painted in blue camaïeu in the rococo style. This passed to a
private collector.
Christofel Ruckers was the last important member of this family of
clavecin-makers.
A beautifully decorated clavecin occurs in the picture of _The Young
Scholar and His Sister_, by Cocx (Coques) in the Cassel Gallery. The
room is decorated with hangings of blue leather, ornamented with gold,
above which hang pictures in ebony frames. The young man is seated at a
table beneath the window and his sister is at the clavecin opposite. The
latter is exquisitely painted, the top showing the story of Apollo and
Marsyas.
[Illustration:
PLATE XXII.—_Design for Goldsmith’s Work, by Adrian Collaert._
]
In the latter part of the sixteenth and throughout the seventeenth
centuries, the bass viol was much played in England, France and the Low
Countries and was called the _viol da gamba_. This instrument frequently
appears in the works of the Dutch masters, in which not unfrequently
ladies are represented playing it, as, for example, in Jan Verkolje’s
(1650–93) _Musical Party_ in the Rijks Museum, Amsterdam, where the lady
is seated upon a low-backed leather chair with her foot upon a
foot-warmer. The instrument is turned from the spectator.
The lute, which so frequently appears in early pictures, was superseded
about 1600 by the theorbo, or double-necked lute with two sets of
strings and two sets of tuning pegs. The theorbo is represented in
Terborch’s _Lute-Player_ in The Cassel Gallery; a lute also appears in
Van Mieris’s _The Painter and his Wife_ in the Hague Gallery, a charming
domestic picture, in which the painter is teasing a puppy and its
mother. The lute lies carelessly on the table.
Brassware contributed very greatly to the brightness and cheerfulness of
an apartment during the Renaissance period as well as during the
centuries before and after. The chandelier with its graceful curves
appears in many a picture; and the best art of the day was devoted to
the hearth-furnishings. Dogs and andirons assumed large proportions and
considerable decorative importance. An interesting Flemish dog of the
sixteenth century is represented in Fig. 28. It is similar to those
metal andirons on the hearth in Plate XXIV. Besides human and animal
figures, this kind of _dinanderie_ assumed many other forms. Other kinds
of _dinanderie_, consisting of candlesticks of human figures in
contemporary costumes are shown in Fig. 29 and Fig. 30.