Whether There Was Any Reasonable Cause for the Ceremonial Observances?
Objection 1: It would seem that there was no reasonable cause for the
ceremonial observances. Because, as the Apostle says (1 Tim. 4:4),
"every creature of God is good, and nothing to be rejected that is
received with thanksgiving." It was therefore unfitting that they
should be forbidden to eat certain foods, as being unclean according
to Lev. 11 [*Cf. Deut. 14].
Obj. 2: Further, just as animals are given to man for food, so also
are herbs: wherefore it is written (Gen. 9:3): "As the green herbs
have I delivered all" flesh "to you." But the Law did not distinguish
any herbs from the rest as being unclean, although some are most
harmful, for instance, those that are poisonous. Therefore it seems
that neither should any animals have been prohibited as being unclean.
Obj. 3: Further, if the matter from which a thing is generated be
unclean, it seems that likewise the thing generated therefrom is
unclean. But flesh is generated from blood. Since therefore all flesh
was not prohibited as unclean, it seems that in like manner neither
should blood have been forbidden as unclean; nor the fat which is
engendered from blood.
Obj. 4: Further, Our Lord said (Matt. 10:28; cf. Luke 12:4), that
those should not be feared "that kill the body," since after death
they "have no more that they can do": which would not be true if
after death harm might come to man through anything done with his
body. Much less therefore does it matter to an animal already dead
how its flesh be cooked. Consequently there seems to be no reason in
what is said, Ex. 23:19: "Thou shalt not boil a kid in the milk of
its dam."
Obj. 5: Further, all that is first brought forth of man and beast, as
being most perfect, is commanded to be offered to the Lord (Ex. 13).
Therefore it is an unfitting command that is set forth in Lev. 19:23:
"when you shall be come into the land, and shall have planted in it
fruit trees, you shall take away the uncircumcision [*'Praeputia,'
which Douay version renders 'first fruits'] of them," i.e. the first
crops, and they "shall be unclean to you, neither shall you eat of
them."
Obj. 6: Further, clothing is something extraneous to man's body.
Therefore certain kinds of garments should not have been forbidden to
the Jews: for instance (Lev. 19:19): "Thou shalt not wear a garment
that is woven of two sorts": and (Deut. 22:5): "A woman shall not be
clothed with man's apparel, neither shall a man use woman's apparel":
and further on (Deut. 22:11): "Thou shalt not wear a garment that is
woven of woolen and linen together."
Obj. 7: Further, to be mindful of God's commandments concerns not the
body but the heart. Therefore it is unsuitably prescribed (Deut. 6:8,
seqq.) that they should "bind" the commandments of God "as a sign" on
their hands; and that they should "write them in the entry"; and
(Num. 15:38, seqq.) that they should "make to themselves fringes in
the corners of their garments, putting in them ribands of blue . . .
they may remember . . . the commandments of the Lord."
Obj. 8: Further, the Apostle says (1 Cor. 9:9) that God does not
"take care for oxen," and, therefore, neither of other irrational
animals. Therefore without reason is it commanded (Deut. 22:6): "If
thou find, as thou walkest by the way, a bird's nest in a tree . . .
thou shalt not take the dam with her young"; and (Deut. 25:4): "Thou
shalt not muzzle the ox that treadeth out thy corn"; and (Lev.
19:19): "Thou shalt not make thy cattle to gender with beasts of any
other kind."
Objection 9: Further, no distinction was made between clean and
unclean plants. Much less therefore should any distinction have been
made about the cultivation of plants. Therefore it was unfittingly
prescribed (Lev. 19:19): "Thou shalt not sow thy field with different
seeds"; and (Deut. 22:9, seqq.): "Thou shalt sow thy vineyard with
divers seeds"; and: "Thou shalt not plough with an ox and an ass
together."
Objection 10: Further, it is apparent that inanimate things are most
of all subject to the power of man. Therefore it was unfitting to
debar man from taking silver and gold of which idols were made, or
anything they found in the houses of idols, as expressed in the
commandment of the Law (Deut. 7:25, seqq.). It also seems an absurd
commandment set forth in Deut. 23:13, that they should "dig round
about and . . . cover with earth that which they were eased of."
Objection 11: Further, piety is required especially in priests. But
it seems to be an act of piety to assist at the burial of one's
friends: wherefore Tobias is commended for so doing (Tob. 1:20,
seqq.). In like manner it is sometimes an act of piety to marry a
loose woman, because she is thereby delivered from sin and infamy.
Therefore it seems inconsistent for these things to be forbidden to
priests (Lev. 21).
_On the contrary,_ It is written (Deut. 18:14): "But thou art
otherwise instructed by the Lord thy God": from which words we may
gather that these observances were instituted by God to be a special
prerogative of that people. Therefore they are not without reason or
cause.
_I answer that,_ The Jewish people, as stated above (A. 5), were
specially chosen for the worship of God, and among them the priests
themselves were specially set apart for that purpose. And just as
other things that are applied to the divine worship, need to be
marked in some particular way so that they be worthy of the worship
of God; so too in that people's, and especially the priests', mode of
life, there needed to be certain special things befitting the divine
worship, whether spiritual or corporal. Now the worship prescribed by
the Law foreshadowed the mystery of Christ: so that whatever they did
was a figure of things pertaining to Christ, according to 1 Cor.
10:11: "All these things happened to them in figures." Consequently
the reasons for these observances may be taken in two ways, first
according to their fittingness to the worship of God; secondly,
according as they foreshadow something touching the Christian mode of
life.
Reply Obj. 1: As stated above (A. 5, ad 4, 5), the Law distinguished
a twofold pollution or uncleanness; one, that of sin, whereby the
soul was defiled; and another consisting in some kind of corruption,
whereby the body was in some way infected. Speaking then of the
first-mentioned uncleanness, no kind of food is unclean, or can
defile a man, by reason of its nature; wherefore we read (Matt.
15:11): "Not that which goeth into the mouth defileth a man; but what
cometh out of the mouth, this defileth a man": which words are
explained (Matt. 15:17) as referring to sins. Yet certain foods can
defile the soul accidentally; in so far as man partakes of them
against obedience or a vow, or from excessive concupiscence; or
through their being an incentive to lust, for which reason some
refrain from wine and flesh-meat.
If, however, we speak of bodily uncleanness, consisting in some kind
of corruption, the flesh of certain animals is unclean, either
because like the pig they feed on unclean things; or because their
life is among unclean surroundings: thus certain animals, like moles
and mice and such like, live underground, whence they contract a
certain unpleasant smell; or because their flesh, through being too
moist or too dry, engenders corrupt humors in the human body. Hence
they were forbidden to eat the flesh of flat-footed animals, i.e.
animals having an uncloven hoof, on account of their earthiness; and
in like manner they were forbidden to eat the flesh of animals that
have many clefts in their feet, because such are very fierce and
their flesh is very dry, such as the flesh of lions and the like. For
the same reason they were forbidden to eat certain birds of prey the
flesh of which is very dry, and certain water-fowl on account of
their exceeding humidity. In like manner certain fish lacking fins
and scales were prohibited on account of their excessive moisture;
such as eels and the like. They were, however, allowed to eat
ruminants and animals with a divided hoof, because in such animals
the humors are well absorbed, and their nature well balanced: for
neither are they too moist, as is indicated by the hoof; nor are they
too earthy, which is shown by their having not a flat but a cloven
hoof. Of fishes they were allowed to partake of the drier kinds, of
which the fins and scales are an indication, because thereby the
moist nature of the fish is tempered. Of birds they were allowed to
eat the tamer kinds, such as hens, partridges, and the like. Another
reason was detestation of idolatry: because the Gentiles, and
especially the Egyptians, among whom they had grown up, offered up
these forbidden animals to their idols, or employed them for the
purpose of sorcery: whereas they did not eat those animals which the
Jews were allowed to eat, but worshipped them as gods, or abstained,
for some other motive, from eating them, as stated above (A. 3, ad
2). The third reason was to prevent excessive care about food:
wherefore they were allowed to eat those animals which could be
procured easily and promptly.
With regard to blood and fat, they were forbidden to partake of those
of any animals whatever without exception. Blood was forbidden, both
in order to avoid cruelty, that they might abhor the shedding of
human blood, as stated above (A. 3, ad 8); and in order to shun
idolatrous rites whereby it was customary for men to collect the
blood and to gather together around it for a banquet in honor of the
idols, to whom they held the blood to be most acceptable. Hence the
Lord commanded the blood to be poured out and to be covered with
earth (Lev. 17:13). For the same reason they were forbidden to eat
animals that had been suffocated or strangled: because the blood of
these animals would not be separated from the body: or because this
form of death is very painful to the victim; and the Lord wished to
withdraw them from cruelty even in regard to irrational animals, so
as to be less inclined to be cruel to other men, through being used
to be kind to beasts. They were forbidden to eat the fat: both
because idolaters ate it in honor of their gods; and because it used
to be burnt in honor of God; and, again, because blood and fat are
not nutritious, which is the cause assigned by Rabbi Moses (Doct.
Perplex. iii). The reason why they were forbidden to eat the sinews
is given in Gen. 32:32, where it is stated that "the children of
Israel . . . eat not the sinew . . . because he touched the sinew of"
Jacob's "thigh and it shrank."
The figurative reason for these things is that all these animals
signified certain sins, in token of which those animals were
prohibited. Hence Augustine says (Contra Faustum iv, 7): "If the
swine and lamb be called in question, both are clean by nature,
because all God's creatures are good: yet the lamb is clean, and the
pig is unclean in a certain signification. Thus if you speak of a
foolish, and of a wise man, each of these expressions is clean
considered in the nature of the sound, letters and syllables of which
it is composed: but in signification, the one is clean, the other
unclean." The animal that chews the cud and has a divided hoof, is
clean in signification. Because division of the hoof is a figure of
the two Testaments: or of the Father and Son: or of the two natures
in Christ: of the distinction of good and evil. While chewing the cud
signifies meditation on the Scriptures and a sound understanding
thereof; and whoever lacks either of these is spiritually unclean. In
like manner those fish that have scales and fins are clean in
signification. Because fins signify the heavenly or contemplative
life; while scales signify a life of trials, each of which is
required for spiritual cleanness. Of birds certain kinds were
forbidden. In the eagle which flies at a great height, pride is
forbidden: in the griffon which is hostile to horses and men, cruelty
of powerful men is prohibited. The osprey, which feeds on very small
birds, signifies those who oppress the poor. The kite, which is full
of cunning, denotes those who are fraudulent in their dealings. The
vulture, which follows an army, expecting to feed on the carcases of
the slain, signifies those who like others to die or to fight among
themselves that they may gain thereby. Birds of the raven kind
signify those who are blackened by their lusts; or those who lack
kindly feelings, for the raven did not return when once it had been
let loose from the ark. The ostrich which, though a bird, cannot fly,
and is always on the ground, signifies those who fight for God's
cause, and at the same time are taken up with worldly business. The
owl, which sees clearly at night, but cannot see in the daytime,
denotes those who are clever in temporal affairs, but dull in
spiritual matters. The gull, which both flies in the air and swims in
the water, signifies those who are partial both to Circumcision and
to Baptism: or else it denotes those who would fly by contemplation,
yet dwell in the waters of sensual delights. The hawk, which helps
men to seize the prey, is a figure of those who assist the strong to
prey on the poor. The screech-owl, which seeks its food by night but
hides by day, signifies the lustful man who seeks to lie hidden in
his deeds of darkness. The cormorant, so constituted that it can stay
a long time under water, denotes the glutton who plunges into the
waters of pleasure. The ibis is an African bird with a long beak, and
feeds on snakes; and perhaps it is the same as the stork: it
signifies the envious man, who refreshes himself with the ills of
others, as with snakes. The swan is bright in color, and by the aid
of its long neck extracts its food from deep places on land or water:
it may denote those who seek earthly profit though an external
brightness of virtue. The bittern is a bird of the East: it has a
long beak, and its jaws are furnished with follicules, wherein it
stores its food at first, after a time proceeding to digest it: it is
a figure of the miser, who is excessively careful in hoarding up the
necessaries of life. The coot [*Douay: _porphyrion._ St. Thomas'
description tallies with the coot or moorhen: though of course he is
mistaken about the feet differing from one another.] has this
peculiarity apart from other birds, that it has a webbed foot for
swimming, and a cloven foot for walking: for it swims like a duck in
the water, and walks like a partridge on land: it drinks only when it
bites, since it dips all its food in water: it is a figure of a man
who will not take advice, and does nothing but what is soaked in the
water of his own will. The heron [*Vulg.: _herodionem_], commonly
called a falcon, signifies those whose "feet are swift to shed blood"
(Ps. 13:3). The plover [*Here, again, the Douay translators
transcribed from the Vulgate: _charadrion;_ _charadrius_ is the
generic name for all plovers.], which is a garrulous bird, signifies
the gossip. The hoopoe, which builds its nest on dung, feeds on
foetid ordure, and whose song is like a groan, denotes worldly grief
which works death in those who are unclean. The bat, which flies near
the ground, signifies those who being gifted with worldly knowledge,
seek none but earthly things. Of fowls and quadrupeds those alone
were permitted which have the hind-legs longer than the forelegs, so
that they can leap: whereas those were forbidden which cling rather
to the earth: because those who abuse the doctrine of the four
Evangelists, so that they are not lifted up thereby, are reputed
unclean. By the prohibition of blood, fat and nerves, we are to
understand the forbidding of cruelty, lust, and bravery in committing
sin.
Reply Obj. 2: Men were wont to eat plants and other products of the
soil even before the deluge: but the eating of flesh seems to have
been introduced after the deluge; for it is written (Gen. 9:3): "Even
as the green herbs have I delivered . . . all" flesh "to you." The
reason for this was that the eating of the products of the soil
savors rather of a simple life; whereas the eating of flesh savors of
delicate and over-careful living. For the soil gives birth to the
herb of its own accord; and such like products of the earth may be
had in great quantities with very little effort: whereas no small
trouble is necessary either to rear or to catch an animal.
Consequently God being wishful to bring His people back to a more
simple way of living, forbade them to eat many kinds of animals, but
not those things that are produced by the soil. Another reason may be
that animals were offered to idols, while the products of the soil
were not.
The Reply to the Third Objection is clear from what has been said (ad
1).
Reply Obj. 4: Although the kid that is slain has no perception of the
manner in which its flesh is cooked, yet it would seem to savor of
heartlessness if the dam's milk, which was intended for the
nourishment of her offspring, were served up on the same dish. It
might also be said that the Gentiles in celebrating the feasts of
their idols prepared the flesh of kids in this manner, for the
purpose of sacrifice or banquet: hence (Ex. 23) after the solemnities
to be celebrated under the Law had been foretold, it is added: "Thou
shalt not boil a kid in the milk of its dam." The figurative reason
for this prohibition is this: the kid, signifying Christ, on account
of "the likeness of sinful flesh" (Rom. 8:3), was not to be seethed,
i.e. slain, by the Jews, "in the milk of its dam," i.e. during His
infancy. Or else it signifies that the kid, i.e. the sinner, should
not be boiled in the milk of its dam, i.e. should not be cajoled by
flattery.
Reply Obj. 5: The Gentiles offered their gods the first-fruits, which
they held to bring them good luck: or they burnt them for the purpose
of secrecy. Consequently (the Israelites) were commanded to look upon
the fruits of the first three years as unclean: for in that country
nearly all the trees bear fruit in three years' time; those trees, to
wit, that are cultivated either from seed, or from a graft, or from a
cutting: but it seldom happens that the fruit-stones or seeds encased
in a pod are sown: since it would take a longer time for these to
bear fruit: and the Law considered what happened most frequently. The
fruits, however, of the fourth year, as being the firstlings of clean
fruits, were offered to God: and from the fifth year onward they were
eaten.
The figurative reason was that this foreshadowed the fact that after
the three states of the Law (the first lasting from Abraham to David,
the second, until they were carried away to Babylon, the third until
the time of Christ), the Fruit of the Law, i.e. Christ, was to be
offered to God. Or again, that we must mistrust our first efforts, on
account of their imperfection.
Reply Obj. 6: It is said of a man in Ecclus. 19:27, that "the attire
of the body . . . " shows "what he is." Hence the Lord wished His
people to be distinguished from other nations, not only by the sign
of the circumcision, which was in the flesh, but also by a certain
difference of attire. Wherefore they were forbidden to wear garments
woven of woolen and linen together, and for a woman to be clothed
with man's apparel, or vice versa, for two reasons. First, to avoid
idolatrous worship. Because the Gentiles, in their religious rites,
used garments of this sort, made of various materials. Moreover in
the worship of Mars, women put on men's armor; while, conversely, in
the worship of Venus men donned women's attire. The second reason was
to preserve them from lust: because the employment of various
materials in the making of garments signified inordinate union of
sexes, while the use of male attire by a woman, or vice versa, has an
incentive to evil desires, and offers an occasion of lust. The
figurative reason is that the prohibition of wearing a garment woven
of woolen and linen signified that it was forbidden to unite the
simplicity of innocence, denoted by wool, with the duplicity of
malice, betokened by linen. It also signifies that woman is forbidden
to presume to teach, or perform other duties of men: or that man
should not adopt the effeminate manners of a woman.
Reply Obj. 7: As Jerome says on Matt. 23:6, "the Lord commanded them
to make violet-colored fringes in the four corners of their garments,
so that the Israelites might be distinguished from other nations."
Hence, in this way, they professed to be Jews: and consequently the
very sight of this sign reminded them of their law.
When we read: "Thou shalt bind them on thy hand, and they shall be
ever before thy eyes [Vulg.: 'they shall be and shall move between
thy eyes'], the Pharisees gave a false interpretation to these words,
and wrote the decalogue of Moses on a parchment, and tied it on their
foreheads like a wreath, so that it moved in front of their eyes":
whereas the intention of the Lord in giving this commandment was that
they should be bound in their hands, i.e. in their works; and that
they should be before their eyes, i.e. in their thoughts. The
violet-colored fillets which were inserted in their cloaks signify
the godly intention which should accompany our every deed. It may,
however, be said that, because they were a carnal-minded and
stiff-necked people, it was necessary for them to be stirred by these
sensible things to the observance of the Law.
Reply Obj. 8: Affection in man is twofold: it may be an affection of
reason, or it may be an affection of passion. If a man's affection be
one of reason, it matters not how man behaves to animals, because God
has subjected all things to man's power, according to Ps. 8:8: "Thou
hast subjected all things under his feet": and it is in this sense
that the Apostle says that "God has no care for oxen"; because God
does not ask of man what he does with oxen or other animals.
But if man's affection be one of passion, then it is moved also in
regard to other animals: for since the passion of pity is caused by
the afflictions of others; and since it happens that even irrational
animals are sensible to pain, it is possible for the affection of
pity to arise in a man with regard to the sufferings of animals. Now
it is evident that if a man practice a pitiful affection for animals,
he is all the more disposed to take pity on his fellow-men: wherefore
it is written (Prov. 11:10): "The just regardeth the lives of his
beasts: but the bowels of the wicked are cruel." Consequently the
Lord, in order to inculcate pity to the Jewish people, who were prone
to cruelty, wished them to practice pity even with regard to dumb
animals, and forbade them to do certain things savoring of cruelty to
animals. Hence He prohibited them to "boil a kid in the milk of its
dam"; and to "muzzle the ox that treadeth out the corn"; and to slay
"the dam with her young." It may, nevertheless, be also said that
these prohibitions were made in hatred of idolatry. For the Egyptians
held it to be wicked to allow the ox to eat of the grain while
threshing the corn. Moreover certain sorcerers were wont to ensnare
the mother bird with her young during incubation, and to employ them
for the purpose of securing fruitfulness and good luck in bringing up
children: also because it was held to be a good omen to find the
mother sitting on her young.
As to the mingling of animals of divers species, the literal reason
may have been threefold. The first was to show detestation for the
idolatry of the Egyptians, who employed various mixtures in
worshipping the planets, which produce various effects, and on
various kinds of things according to their various conjunctions. The
second reason was in condemnation of unnatural sins. The third reason
was the entire removal of all occasions of concupiscence. Because
animals of different species do not easily breed, unless this be
brought about by man; and movements of lust are aroused by seeing
such things. Wherefore in the Jewish traditions we find it prescribed
as stated by Rabbi Moses that men shall turn away their eyes from
such sights.
The figurative reason for these things is that the necessities of
life should not be withdrawn from the ox that treadeth the corn, i.e.
from the preacher bearing the sheaves of doctrine, as the Apostle
states (1 Cor. 9:4, seqq.). Again, we should not take the dam with
her young: because in certain things we have to keep the spiritual
senses, i.e. the offspring, and set aside the observance of the
letter, i.e. the mother, for instance, in all the ceremonies of the
Law. It is also forbidden that a beast of burden, i.e. any of the
common people, should be allowed to engender, i.e. to have any
connection, with animals of another kind, i.e. with Gentiles or Jews.
Reply Obj. 9: All these minglings were forbidden in agriculture;
literally, in detestation of idolatry. For the Egyptians in
worshipping the stars employed various combinations of seeds, animals
and garments, in order to represent the various connections of the
stars. Or else all these minglings were forbidden in detestation of
the unnatural vice.
They have, however, a figurative reason. For the prohibition: "Thou
shalt not sow thy field with different seeds," is to be understood,
in the spiritual sense, of the prohibition to sow strange doctrine in
the Church, which is a spiritual vineyard. Likewise "the field," i.e.
the Church, must not be sown "with different seeds," i.e. with
Catholic and heretical doctrines. Neither is it allowed to plough
"with an ox and an ass together"; thus a fool should not accompany a
wise man in preaching, for one would hinder the other.
Reply Obj. 10: [*The Reply to the Tenth Objection is lacking in the
codices. The solution given here is found in some editions, and was
supplied by Nicolai.] Silver and gold were reasonably forbidden
(Deut. 7) not as though they were not subject to the power of man,
but because, like the idols themselves, all materials out of which
idols were made, were anathematized as hateful in God's sight. This
is clear from the same chapter, where we read further on (Deut.
7:26): "Neither shalt thou bring anything of the idol into thy house,
lest thou become an anathema like it." Another reason was lest, by
taking silver and gold, they should be led by avarice into idolatry
to which the Jews were inclined. The other precept (Deut. 23) about
covering up excretions, was just and becoming, both for the sake of
bodily cleanliness; and in order to keep the air wholesome; and by
reason of the respect due to the tabernacle of the covenant which
stood in the midst of the camp, wherein the Lord was said to dwell;
as is clearly set forth in the same passage, where after expressing
the command, the reason thereof is at once added, to wit: "For the
Lord thy God walketh in the midst of thy camp, to deliver thee, and
to give up thy enemies to thee, and let thy camp be holy (i.e. clean),
and let no uncleanness appear therein." The figurative reason for
this precept, according to Gregory (Moral. xxxi), is that sins which
are the fetid excretions of the mind should be covered over by
repentance, that we may become acceptable to God, according to Ps.
31:1: "Blessed are they whose iniquities are forgiven, and whose sins
are covered." Or else according to a gloss, that we should recognize
the unhappy condition of human nature, and humbly cover and purify
the stains of a puffed-up and proud spirit in the deep furrow of
self-examination.
Reply Obj. 11: Sorcerers and idolatrous priests made use, in their
rites, of the bones and flesh of dead men. Wherefore, in order to
extirpate the customs of idolatrous worship, the Lord commanded that
the priests of inferior degree, who at fixed times served in the
temple, should not "incur an uncleanness at the death" of anyone
except of those who were closely related to them, viz. their father
or mother, and others thus near of kin to them. But the high-priest
had always to be ready for the service of the sanctuary; wherefore he
was absolutely forbidden to approach the dead, however nearly related
to him. They were also forbidden to marry a "harlot" or "one that has
been put away," or any other than a virgin: both on account of the
reverence due to the priesthood, the honor of which would seem to be
tarnished by such a marriage: and for the sake of the children who
would be disgraced by the mother's shame: which was most of all to be
avoided when the priestly dignity was passed on from father to son.
Again, they were commanded to shave neither head nor beard, and not
to make incisions in their flesh, in order to exclude the rites of
idolatry. For the priests of the Gentiles shaved both head and beard,
wherefore it is written (Bar 6:30): "Priests sit in their temples
having their garments rent, and their heads and beards shaven."
Moreover, in worshipping their idols "they cut themselves with knives
and lancets" (3 Kings 18:28). For this reason the priests of the Old
Law were commanded to do the contrary.
The spiritual reason for these things is that priests should be
entirely free from dead works, i.e. sins. And they should not shave
their heads, i.e. set wisdom aside; nor should they shave their
beards, i.e. set aside the perfection of wisdom; nor rend their
garments or cut their flesh, i.e. they should not incur the sin of
schism.
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