Whether the Moral Virtues Are Connected with One Another?
Objection 1: It would seem that the moral virtues are not connected
with one another. Because moral virtues are sometimes caused by the
exercise of acts, as is proved in _Ethic._ ii, 1, 2. But man can
exercise himself in the acts of one virtue, without exercising
himself in the acts of some other virtue. Therefore it is possible to
have one moral virtue without another.
Obj. 2: Further, magnificence and magnanimity are moral virtues. Now
a man may have other moral virtues without having magnificence or
magnanimity: for the Philosopher says (Ethic. iv, 2, 3) that "a poor
man cannot be magnificent," and yet he may have other virtues; and
(Ethic. iv) that "he who is worthy of small things, and so accounts
his worth, is modest, but not magnanimous." Therefore the moral
virtues are not connected with one another.
Obj. 3: Further, as the moral virtues perfect the appetitive part of
the soul, so do the intellectual virtues perfect the intellective
part. But the intellectual virtues are not mutually connected: since
we may have one science, without having another. Neither, therefore,
are the moral virtues connected with one another.
Obj. 4: Further, if the moral virtues are mutually connected, this
can only be because they are united together in prudence. But this
does not suffice to connect the moral virtues together. For,
seemingly, one may be prudent about things to be done in relation to
one virtue, without being prudent in those that concern another
virtue: even as one may have the art of making certain things,
without the art of making certain others. Now prudence is right
reason about things to be done. Therefore the moral virtues are not
necessarily connected with one another.
_On the contrary,_ Ambrose says on Luke 6:20: "The virtues are
connected and linked together, so that whoever has one, is seen to
have several": and Augustine says (De Trin. vi, 4) that "the virtues
that reside in the human mind are quite inseparable from one
another": and Gregory says (Moral. xxii, 1) that "one virtue without
the other is either of no account whatever, or very imperfect": and
Cicero says (Quaest. Tusc. ii): "If you confess to not having one
particular virtue, it must needs be that you have none at all."
_I answer that,_ Moral virtue may be considered either as perfect or
as imperfect. An imperfect moral virtue, temperance for instance, or
fortitude, is nothing but an inclination in us to do some kind of
good deed, whether such inclination be in us by nature or by
habituation. If we take the moral virtues in this way, they are not
connected: since we find men who, by natural temperament or by being
accustomed, are prompt in doing deeds of liberality, but are not
prompt in doing deeds of chastity.
But the perfect moral virtue is a habit that inclines us to do a good
deed well; and if we take moral virtues in this way, we must say that
they are connected, as nearly as all are agreed in saying. For this
two reasons are given, corresponding to the different ways of
assigning the distinction of the cardinal virtues. For, as we stated
above (Q. 61, AA. 3, 4), some distinguish them according to certain
general properties of the virtues: for instance, by saying that
discretion belongs to prudence, rectitude to justice, moderation to
temperance, and strength of mind to fortitude, in whatever matter we
consider these properties to be. In this way the reason for the
connection is evident: for strength of mind is not commended as
virtuous, if it be without moderation or rectitude or discretion: and
so forth. This, too, is the reason assigned for the connection by
Gregory, who says (Moral. xxii, 1) that "a virtue cannot be perfect"
as a virtue, "if isolated from the others: for there can be no true
prudence without temperance, justice and fortitude": and he continues
to speak in like manner of the other virtues (cf. Q. 61, A. 4, Obj.
1). Augustine also gives the same reason (De Trin. vi, 4).
Others, however, differentiate these virtues in respect of their
matters, and it is in this way that Aristotle assigns the reason for
their connection (Ethic. vi, 13). Because, as stated above (Q. 58, A.
4), no moral virtue can be without prudence; since it is proper to
moral virtue to make a right choice, for it is an elective habit. Now
right choice requires not only the inclination to a due end, which
inclination is the direct outcome of moral virtue, but also correct
choice of things conducive to the end, which choice is made by
prudence, that counsels, judges, and commands in those things that
are directed to the end. In like manner one cannot have prudence
unless one has the moral virtues: since prudence is "right reason
about things to be done," and the starting point of reason is the end
of the thing to be done, to which end man is rightly disposed by
moral virtue. Hence, just as we cannot have speculative science
unless we have the understanding of the principles, so neither can we
have prudence without the moral virtues: and from this it follows
clearly that the moral virtues are connected with one another.
Reply Obj. 1: Some moral virtues perfect man as regards his general
state, in other words, with regard to those things which have to be
done in every kind of human life. Hence man needs to exercise himself
at the same time in the matters of all moral virtues. And if he
exercise himself, by good deeds, in all such matters, he will acquire
the habits of all the moral virtues. But if he exercise himself by
good deeds in regard to one matter, but not in regard to another, for
instance, by behaving well in matters of anger, but not in matters of
concupiscence; he will indeed acquire a certain habit of restraining
his anger; but this habit will lack the nature of virtue, through the
absence of prudence, which is wanting in matters of concupiscence. In
the same way, natural inclinations fail to have the complete
character of virtue, if prudence be lacking.
But there are some moral virtues which perfect man with regard to
some eminent state, such as magnificence and magnanimity; and since
it does not happen to all in common to be exercised in the matter of
such virtues, it is possible for a man to have the other moral
virtues, without actually having the habits of these
virtues--provided we speak of acquired virtue. Nevertheless, when
once a man has acquired those other virtues he possesses these in
proximate potentiality. Because when, by practice, a man has acquired
liberality in small gifts and expenditure, if he were to come in for
a large sum of money, he would acquire the habit of magnificence with
but little practice: even as a geometrician, by dint of little study,
acquires scientific knowledge about some conclusion which had never
been presented to his mind before. Now we speak of having a thing
when we are on the point of having it, according to the saying of the
Philosopher (Phys. ii, text. 56): "That which is scarcely lacking is
not lacking at all."
This suffices for the Reply to the Second Objection.
Reply Obj. 3: The intellectual virtues are about divers matters
having no relation to one another, as is clearly the case with the
various sciences and arts. Hence we do not observe in them the
connection that is to be found among the moral virtues, which are
about passions and operations, that are clearly related to one
another. For all the passions have their rise in certain initial
passions, viz. love and hatred, and terminate in certain others, viz.
pleasure and sorrow. In like manner all the operations that are the
matter of moral virtue are related to one another, and to the
passions. Hence the whole matter of moral virtues falls under the one
rule of prudence.
Nevertheless, all intelligible things are related to first
principles. And in this way, all the intellectual virtues depend on
the understanding of principles; even as prudence depends on the
moral virtues, as stated. On the other hand, the universal principles
which are the object of the virtue of understanding of principles, do
not depend on the conclusions, which are the objects of the other
intellectual virtues, as do the moral virtues depend on prudence,
because the appetite, in a fashion, moves the reason, and the reason
the appetite, as stated above (Q. 9, A. 1; Q. 58, A. 5, ad 1).
Reply Obj. 4: Those things to which the moral virtues incline, are as
the principles of prudence: whereas the products of art are not the
principles, but the matter of art. Now it is evident that, though
reason may be right in one part of the matter, and not in another,
yet in no way can it be called right reason, if it be deficient in
any principle whatever. Thus, if a man be wrong about the principle,
"A whole is greater than its part," he cannot acquire the science of
geometry, because he must necessarily wander from the truth in his
conclusion. Moreover, things _done_ are related to one another, but
not things _made,_ as stated above (ad 3). Consequently the lack of
prudence in one department of things to be done, would result in a
deficiency affecting other things to be done: whereas this does not
occur in things to be made.
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