Whether Habits Increase?
Objection 1: It would seem that habits cannot increase. For increase
concerns quantity (Phys. v, text. 18). But habits are not in the
genus [of] quantity, but in that of quality. Therefore there can be
no increase of habits.
Obj. 2: Further, habit is a perfection (Phys. vii, text. 17, 18). But
since perfection conveys a notion of end and term, it seems that it
cannot be more or less. Therefore a habit cannot increase.
Obj. 3: Further, those things which can be more or less are subject
to alteration: for that which from being less hot becomes more hot,
is said to be altered. But in habits there is no alteration, as is
proved in _Phys._ vii, text. 15, 17. Therefore habits cannot increase.
_On the contrary,_ Faith is a habit, and yet it increases: wherefore
the disciples said to our Lord (Luke 17:5): "Lord, increase our
faith." Therefore habits increase.
_I answer that,_ Increase, like other things pertaining to quantity,
is transferred from bodily quantities to intelligible spiritual
things, on account of the natural connection of the intellect with
corporeal things, which come under the imagination. Now in corporeal
quantities, a thing is said to be great, according as it reaches the
perfection of quantity due to it; wherefore a certain quantity is
reputed great in man, which is not reputed great in an elephant. And
so also in forms, we say a thing is great because it is perfect. And
since good has the nature of perfection, therefore "in things which
are great, but not in quantity, to be greater is the same as to be
better," as Augustine says (De Trin. vi, 8).
Now the perfection of a form may be considered in two ways: first, in
respect of the form itself: secondly, in respect of the participation
of the form by its subject. In so far as we consider the perfections
of a form in respect of the form itself, thus the form is said to be
"little" or "great": for instance great or little health or science.
But in so far as we consider the perfection of a form in respect of
the participation thereof by the subject, it is said to be "more" or
"less": for instance more or less white or healthy. Now this
distinction is not to be understood as implying that the form has a
being outside its matter or subject, but that it is one thing to
consider the form according to its specific nature, and another to
consider it in respect of its participation by a subject.
In this way, then, there were four opinions among philosophers
concerning intensity and remission of habits and forms, as Simplicius
relates in his _Commentary on the Predicaments._ For Plotinus and the
other Platonists held that qualities and habits themselves were
susceptible of more or less, for the reason that they were material
and so had a certain want of definiteness, on account of the infinity
of matter. Others, on the contrary, held that qualities and habits of
themselves were not susceptible of more or less; but that the things
affected by them (_qualia_) are said to be more or less, in respect
of the participation of the subject: that, for instance, justice is
not more or less, but the just thing. Aristotle alludes to this
opinion in the _Predicaments_ (Categor. vi). The third opinion was
that of the Stoics, and lies between the two preceding opinions. For
they held that some habits are of themselves susceptible of more and
less, for instance, the arts; and that some are not, as the virtues.
The fourth opinion was held by some who said that qualities and
immaterial forms are not susceptible of more or less, but that
material forms are.
In order that the truth in this matter be made clear, we must observe
that [that], in respect of which a thing receives its species, must
be something fixed and stationary, and as it were indivisible: for
whatever attains to that thing, is contained under the species, and
whatever recedes from it more or less, belongs to another species,
more or less perfect. Wherefore, the Philosopher says (Metaph. viii,
text. 10) that species of things are like numbers, in which addition
or subtraction changes the species. If, therefore, a form, or
anything at all, receives its specific nature in respect of itself,
or in respect of something belonging to it, it is necessary that,
considered in itself, it be something of a definite nature, which can
be neither more nor less. Such are heat, whiteness or other like
qualities which are not denominated from a relation to something
else: and much more so, substance, which is _per se_ being. But those
things which receive their species from something to which they are
related, can be diversified, in respect of themselves, according to
more or less: and nonetheless they remain in the same species, on
account of the oneness of that to which they are related, and from
which they receive their species. For example, movement is in itself
more intense or more remiss: and yet it remains in the same species,
on account of the oneness of the term by which it is specified. We
may observe the same thing in health; for a body attains to the
nature of health, according as it has a disposition suitable to an
animal's nature, to which various dispositions may be suitable; which
disposition is therefore variable as regards more or less, and withal
the nature of health remains. Whence the Philosopher says (Ethic. x,
2, 3): "Health itself may be more or less: for the measure is not the
same in all, nor is it always the same in one individual; but down to
a certain point it may decrease and still remain health."
Now these various dispositions and measures of health are by way of
excess and defect: wherefore if the name of health were given to the
most perfect measure, then we should not speak of health as greater
or less. Thus therefore it is clear how a quality or form may
increase or decrease of itself, and how it cannot.
But if we consider a quality or form in respect of its participation
by the subject, thus again we find that some qualities and forms are
susceptible of more or less, and some not. Now Simplicius assigns the
cause of this diversity to the fact that substance in itself cannot
be susceptible of more or less, because it is _per se_ being. And
therefore every form which is participated substantially by its
subject, cannot vary in intensity and remission: wherefore in the
genus of substance nothing is said to be more or less. And because
quantity is nigh to substance, and because shape follows on quantity,
therefore is it that neither in these can there be such a thing as
more or less. Whence the Philosopher says (Phys. vii, text. 15) that
when a thing receives form and shape, it is not said to be altered,
but to be made. But other qualities which are further removed from
quantity, and are connected with passions and actions, are
susceptible of more or less, in respect of their participation by the
subject.
Now it is possible to explain yet further the reason of this
diversity. For, as we have said, that from which a thing receives its
species must remain indivisibly fixed and constant in something
indivisible. Wherefore in two ways it may happen that a form cannot
be participated more or less. First because the participator has its
species in respect of that form. And for this reason no substantial
form is participated more or less. Wherefore the Philosopher says
(Metaph. viii, text. 10) that, "as a number cannot be more or less,
so neither can that which is in the species of substance," that is,
in respect of its participation of the specific form: "but in so far
as substance may be with matter," i.e. in respect of material
dispositions, "more or less are found in substance."
Secondly this may happen from the fact that the form is essentially
indivisible: wherefore if anything participate that form, it must
needs participate it in respect of its indivisibility. For this
reason we do not speak of the species of number as varying in respect
of more or less; because each species thereof is constituted by an
indivisible unity. The same is to be said of the species of
continuous quantity, which are denominated from numbers, as
two-cubits-long, three-cubits-long, and of relations of quantity, as
double and treble, and of figures of quantity, as triangle and
tetragon.
This same explanation is given by Aristotle in the _Predicaments_
(Categor. vi), where in explaining why figures are not susceptible of
more or less, he says: "Things which are given the nature of a
triangle or a circle, are accordingly triangles and circles": to wit,
because indivisibility is essential to the motion of such, wherefore
whatever participates their nature must participate it in its
indivisibility.
It is clear, therefore, since we speak of habits and dispositions in
respect of a relation to something (Phys. vii, text. 17), that in two
ways intensity and remission may be observed in habits and
dispositions. First, in respect of the habit itself: thus, for
instance, we speak of greater or less health; greater or less
science, which extends to more or fewer things. Secondly, in respect
of participation by the subject: in so far as equal science or health
is participated more in one than in another, according to a diverse
aptitude arising either from nature, or from custom. For habit and
disposition do not give species to the subject: nor again do they
essentially imply indivisibility.
We shall say further on (Q. 66, A. 1) how it is with the virtues.
Reply Obj. 1: As the word "great" is taken from corporeal quantities
and applied to the intelligible perfections of forms; so also is the
word "growth," the term of which is something great.
Reply Obj. 2: Habit is indeed a perfection, but not a perfection
which is the term of its subject; for instance, a term giving the
subject its specific being. Nor again does the nature of a habit
include the notion of term, as do the species of numbers. Wherefore
there is nothing to hinder it from being susceptible of more or less.
Reply Obj. 3: Alteration is primarily indeed in the qualities of the
third species; but secondarily it may be in the qualities of the
first species: for, supposing an alteration as to hot and cold, there
follows in an animal an alteration as to health and sickness. In like
manner, if an alteration take place in the passions of the sensitive
appetite, or the sensitive powers of apprehension, an alteration
follows as to science and virtue (Phys. viii, text. 20).
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