THE OX.

The surface of the earth, adorned with its verdure, is the

inexhaustible and common food from which man and animals draw their

subsistence. Every thing in nature that has life, is nourished by

that which vegetates; and vegetables, in turn, exist on the spoil of

every thing that has lived or vegetated. To live, it is necessary to

destroy; and it is only by the destruction of beings, that animals can

live themselves and multiply. God, in creating the first individuals

of each species of animals and vegetables, has not only given form to

the dust of the earth, but also gave it animation, by inclosing in each

individual a greater or less quantity of active principles, organs,

living molecules, incapable of being destroyed, and common to all

organized beings. The molecules pass from body to body, and are equally

the causes of life, and the continuation of it, to the nourishment and

growth of each individual. After the dissolution of the body, after

its reduction to ashes, these organic molecules, on which death has no

power, survive, circulate in the universe, pass into other beings and

produce life and nourishment. Every production, every renovation, or

increase by generation, by nutrition, or by growth, implies a preceding

destruction, a conversion of substance, a translation of these organic

molecules which never multiply, but always subsisting in an equal

number, render nature always equally alive, the earth equally peopled,

and ever equally resplendent with the primitive glory of Him who

created it.

To take beings in general, the total quantity of life is always then

the same; and death, which seems to destroy all, destroys nothing of

that primitive life which is common to all organized beings. Like all

other subordinate powers, death attacks only individuals, strikes only

the surface, and destroys the form; but can have no power over matter,

and can do no harm to Nature, which only appears to more advantage. She

does not permit him to destroy the species, but leaves individuals

to his power, to shew herself independent both of Death and Time;

to exercise every instant, her power, which is always active; to

manifest her plenitude by her fertility, and to make the universe, in

reproducing and renewing its beings, a theatre always filled, and a

spectacle always new.

That there may be a constant succession of beings, it is necessary

there should be a mutual destruction; that animals may subsist and be

nourished, vegetables, or other animals must be destroyed; and as,

before and after the destruction, the quantity of life remains always

the same, it should, as if it was indifferent to nature which species

were more or less consumed; like an economical mother, however, in the

midst of abundance, she has fixed bounds to her expences, and prevents

unnecessary waste, in giving but to a few animals the instinct of

feeding on flesh, while she has abundantly multiplied both the species

and individuals which feed on plants and vegetables. She seems to have

been prodigal to the vegetable kingdom, and to have bestowed on each

great profusion and fecundity; greatly perhaps to second her views,

in maintaining and even establishing this order on the earth; for in

the sea, we find almost all the species are voracious; they live on

their own kind, or on others, and devour perpetually, without ever

destroying any particular species, because the fecundity is as great as

the depredation, and because all the consumption turns to the profit of

reproduction.

Man knows how to exercise his power on animals; he has chosen those

whose flesh pleases his taste, has made them his domestic slaves, and

multiplied them more than nature would have done; and by the pains he

takes for their increase, seems to have acquired a right to slaughter

them; but he extends this right much farther than his wants require;

for he also makes war with savage animals, birds, and fishes, and does

not even confine himself to those of the climate which he inhabits,

but seeks at a distance, and even in the midst of the ocean, for new

food. All nature seems insufficient to satisfy the intemperance, and

the inconstant variety of his appetites. Man alone consumes more flesh

than all the other animals together devour; he is, then, the greatest

destroyer; and this more from custom than necessity. Instead of using

with moderation the blessings which are offered him, instead of

disposing of them with equity, instead of increasing them in proportion

as he destroys, the rich man places all his glory in consuming, in

one day, at his table, as much as would be necessary to support many

families; he equally abuses both animals and his fellow-creatures, some

of whom remain starving and languishing in misery, and labour only to

satisfy his immoderate appetite, and more insatiable vanity, and who,

by destroying others through wantonness, destroys himself by excess.

Nevertheless, man, like some other animals, might live on vegetables;

and flesh, which seems so analogous to flesh, is not a better

nourishment than corn or bread; that which contributes to the

nutrition, development, growth, and maintenance of the body, is not

that visible matter which seems to be the texture of flesh or herbs,

but of those organic particles which they both contain, since the

ox, by eating grass, acquires as much flesh as either man or beast,

that live on flesh and blood. The only real difference between these

aliments is, that, in an equal quantity, flesh, corn and seeds, contain

more organic particles than grass, leaves, roots, and other parts of

plants; of which fact we may be certain by observing infusions of these

different matters, insomuch that man, and other carnivorous animals,

whose stomachs and intestines are not sufficiently capacious to admit a

great quantity of aliment at once, cannot eat herbs enough to receive

a quantify of organic particles sufficient for their nutrition; and

it is for this reason that man, and those animals which have but one

stomach, can only live on flesh and corn, which, in a small bulk,

contains a great quantity of these organic and nutritive particles,

while the ox[C], and other animals, that chew the cud, who have

many stomachs, one of which is very capacious, and consequently can

contain a large mass of herbage, can extract therefrom a sufficient

quantity of these organic particles for their nourishment, growth, and

multiplication; the quantity here compensates for the quality of the

food, but the foundation is the same; it is the same matter, the same

organic particles, which nourishes man, the ox, and all other animals.

[C] The term ox is generally applied to cattle in general, but when

used in its confined sense, we shall mark it with _Italics_.

Some may observe that the horse has but one stomach, and even that

very small; that the ass, the hare, and other animals, which live

on herbage, have also but one stomach, and, consequently, this

explanation, though it seems probable, is not well grounded. But

these exceptions, so far from controverting, appear to confirm this

opinion, for although the horse has one stomach he has pouches in the

intestines, so very capacious that they may be compared to the paunch

of ruminant animals; and hares have a blind gut of so great a length

and diameter, that it is at least equal to a second stomach; thus it

is not astonishing that these animals can live on herbage alone. We

find in general it is wholly on the size of the stomach and intestines

that their manner of feeding depends; for ruminating quadrupeds, as the

ox, sheep, goats, camels, &c. have four stomachs, and the intestines

of a prodigious length; these live on herbage, and that alone suffices

them. Horses, asses, hares, rabbits, guinea pigs, &c. have but one

stomach, but they have a gut equivalent to a second, and live on herbs

and corn. Wild boars, hedgehogs, &c. whose stomachs and bowels are less

capacious, eat but little grass, and live on corn, fruits, and roots.

Those, such as the wolf, fox, tyger, &c. which have the stomach smaller

than other animals, in proportion to the size of their bodies, are

obliged to chuse the most succulent aliments; and those which abound

most with organic particles, and to eat flesh and blood, corn, and

fruits.

It is on this necessary and physical relation, then, much more than on

the varieties of taste, that is founded the diversity which we see

in the appetites of animals, for if necessity did not determine them

oftener than taste how could they devour corrupted flesh with as much

avidity as that which is fresh and juicy? Why do they eat equally of

all kinds of flesh? We see that domestic dogs, which have it in their

power to chuse, constantly reject certain meats, such as the woodcock,

thrush, pork, &c. whilst wild dogs, wolves, foxes, &c. eat equally the

flesh of the hog, woodcock, birds of all species, and even frogs, of

which I once found two in the stomach of a wolf. When they can neither

get flesh nor fish, they will eat fruit, corn, grapes, &c. but they

always prefer that food, which, in a small portion, contains a large

quantity of nutritive or organic particles, proper for the nourishment

and subsistence of the body.

If these are not sufficient proofs let us consider the method made

use of to fatten cattle. They begin by castration, thus stopping the

passage through which the organic molecules escape in most abundance;

then, instead of leaving the _ox_ to his usual pasture, of herbage

alone, they give him bran, corn, and turnips; in a word, more

substantial aliments than grass. In a little time the flesh, juices,

and fat of the animal augments, the fat abounds, and, from a flesh

hard and dry, forms a viand so succulent and good, that it is the chief

of our best repasts.

It also results from what has been said, that man, whose stomach and

intestines are not so capacious with respect to the size of his body,

could not live on herbage alone; yet it is proved by facts, that he

can live on vegetables, corn, and seeds of plants, since there are

whole nations, and particular orders of men, who are forbid by their

religion to eat of any thing that has had life; but these examples,

though supported by the authority of Pythagoras, and recommended by

some physicians, do not appear sufficient to convince us, that it would

benefit the health of mankind, or that the human species would multiply

in a greater proportion, if they lived on vegetables and bread; the

rather as peasants, whom the luxuries, and the sumptuousness of the

great, reduce to this mode of living, languish and die much sooner than

persons in a middle station of life, to whom wants and excesses are

equally unknown.

Next to man, animals which live on flesh only are the greatest

destroyers: they are both the enemies of nature, and the rivals of man.

It is only by a careful attention that our flocks and fowls can be

sheltered from birds of prey, the wolf, fox, weazle, &c. and it is only

by a continual war that we can preserve our grain, fruits, and even

clothing from the voracity of rats, moths, mites, &c. for insects are

among those creatures which do more harm than good.

The ox, sheep, and those other animals which feed on grass, are not

only the best, most useful, and most precious to man, but consume and

cost him least. The ox, above all the rest, is the most excellent in

this respect, for he gives as much to the earth as he takes from it,

and even enriches the ground on which he lives; while the horse and

the greatest part of other animals, in a few years impoverish the best

pasture-lands.

But these are not the only advantages that this animal procures to

man; without the ox, the poor and the rich would have much difficulty

to live; the earth would remain uncultivated, the fields, and even the

gardens would be dry and sterile; it is on him that all the work of

the country falls, he is the most useful domestic of the farmer, and

does all the labour of agriculture[D]. Formerly he formed the only

riches of mankind, and still he is the basis of the riches of states,

which only flourish, and are supported by the cultivation of the lands,

and the number of their cattle; since these are the only real wealth

we possess, all others, even gold and silver, being only arbitrary

representations, and are of no worth but what the produce of the earth

can give them.

[D] Modern practice, at least in England, proves that with all the

superior qualities of the ox, he is not entitled to this particular

encomium, since in many parts it is found the horse can be much more

advantageously employed in the culture of lands, and even in some

countries the service of the ox in that respect is quite exploded.

That the ox is not so proper as the horse, ass, camel, &c. for carrying

burthens, the form of his back and loins clearly demonstrate; but the

thickness of his neck, and the broadness of his shoulders, sufficiently

indicate his qualification for the yoke. Although it is in this

manner that he draws with the most advantage, yet in some provinces

of France they oblige him to draw with his horns; for which they give

as a reason, that when harnessed in this manner he is managed with

more ease. His head is very strong, and he may draw very well when so

yoked, but certainly with much less advantage than when he draws by the

shoulders. He seems to be made on purpose for the plough; the size of

his body, the slowness of his motions, the shortness of his legs, and

even his tranquillity and patience when he labours, concur in making

him proper for the cultivation of the ground, and more capable than

any other animal of overcoming the constant resistance that the earth

opposes to his efforts. The horse, although perhaps as strong as the

ox, is, however, less proper for this work, his legs are too long, his

motions too great and sudden, and he is also more impatient, and more

easily fatigued; we take from him his lightness, all the suppleness of

his motion, and all the grace of his attitude, when he is put to this

laborious work, which requires more constancy than ardour, and more

strength and weight than swiftness.

In those species of animals which man has formed into flocks, and whose

multiplication is his principal object, the females are more useful

than the males. The produce of the cow, is a benefit almost perpetually

renewed; the flesh of the calf is healthy and delicate, the milk; is

excellent food at least for children; butter relishes the greatest part

of our victuals, and cheese is the common food of the country people.

How many poor families are reduced to live entirely on their cow! These

same men who toil from morning to night, groan with anguish, exhausted

with continual labour of cultivating the ground, obtain nothing from

the earth but black bread, and are obliged to give to others the flour

and substance of their grain. It is through them that the harvests are

abundant, though they partake not thereof. These men who breed and

multiply our cattle, who take care of, and are constantly occupied with

them, dare not enjoy the fruits of their labour; they are debarred from

the use of flesh, and reduced by the necessity of their condition, or

rather by the brutality of the great, to live like horses, on barley

and oats, common herbs, &c.

_Engraved for Barr's Buffon_

[Illustration: FIG. 20. _Bull_]

[Illustration: FIG. 21. _Cow_]

The cow (_fig. 21._) may also be used for the plough; and though she

is not so strong as the ox, yet she is often made use of to supply his

place; but, if employed for this use, care should be taken to match

her with an ox of the same size and strength; or with another cow, in

order to preserve the equality of the draught, and to keep the plough

in an equilibrium between the two powers attending to facilitate the

labour, and preserving the tillage more regular. From six to eight

_oxen_ are frequently made use of for stiff land, but more especially

in fallow grounds which break up in large clots, whilst two cows are

sufficient to plough light, and sandy soils. The ancients confined

the _ox_ to 120 paces, as the extent of the furrow, he was capable of

tracing without stopping; after which they suffered him to take breath

a few moments before he went on with the same furrow, or began a fresh

one. The ancients took delight in the study of agriculture and gloried

in ploughing themselves, or at least in encouraging the labourer,

and sparing him and the _ox_ as much trouble as possible; but among

us, those who enjoy the greatest share of the blessings of the earth

are those who know least how to esteem, and to encourage the art of

cultivation.

The bull (_fig. 20._) serves chiefly for the propagation of his

species, and though we can make him submit to work, yet we are less

sure of his obedience, and must be on our guard against the improper

use he may make of his strength. Nature has made him indocile and

haughty; in rutting time he is unmanageable, and frequently furious;

but by castration these impetuous motions cease, whilst it robs him of

none of his strength; it rather renders him larger, weightier, and more

proper for the work for which he is intended; it has also an effect

upon his disposition, and makes him more tame and patient, more docile

and less troublesome to the rest; a number of bulls would prove an

unruly herd, which man could neither tame nor guide.

The country people adopt different modes for castration, but they in

general consider the best time when the animal is between eighteen

months and two years of age, as they seldom live when it is performed

more early, yet those who do survive the operation, if performed while

young calves, always become the largest and fattest oxen. If left to a

late period they retain all the impetuous ferocity of the male sex, and

are scarcely governable. The females are commonly in season from about

the 15th of April to the 15th of July; they go nine months with young,

and bring forth at the beginning of the tenth; therefore calves are

always plenty during the spring and summer.

The bull, like the stallion, should be chosen from the handsomest of

his species; he should be large, well made, and full of flesh; his

eyes black, his looks haughty and fierce, forehead open, head short,

horns thick, short, and black, ears short and soft, muzzle large,

nose short and straight, neck fleshy and thick, shoulders and breast

large, loins firm, back straight, legs thick and muscular, tail long

and well covered with hair, step firm and sure, and his coat of a

reddish colour. The cows frequently retain the first, second, or third

time, and as soon as they are with calf the bull takes no more notice

of them, although they have still some appearance of ardour; but this

usually goes off as soon as they have conceived, and they also refuse

the approaches of the bull.

Cows are also subject to abortion if put to the plough, and not

properly managed; and care should be taken to prevent their leaping

over hedges, ditches, &c. they should also be put into the richest

pastures, which, without being too humid or marshy, afford plenty

of herbage. For six weeks before they calve they should be more fed

than usual, giving them grass in their stalls, if summer, and, during

the winter bran, lucerne, saintfoine, &c. They should not be milked

from that time; the milk being necessary for the nourishment of the

foetus. There are some cows in which the milk ceases a month or six

weeks before they calve, but those which have milk to the last are

the best mothers, and the best nurses. The milk, towards the time

of calving, is generally bad, and in small quantities. More care is

necessary to be taken of the cow at and after her delivery than of

the mare, being apparently more weakened and fatigued. She should be

put into a stable and kept warm, giving her good litter, and feeding

her well, during ten or twelve days, with bean-flower, corn, oats,

&c. mixed with salt water, and plenty of lucerne, saintfoine, or good

grass. This time is sufficient to re-establish her strength, after

which she may be brought by degrees to her usual manner of living

and pasturing. Not any of her milk should be taken for the two first

months, but left solely to the calf; besides, the milk at this time is

not of the best quality.

The calf should be left with his mother for five or six days, that it

may be kept warm, and suck as often as it has occasion; it may then be

removed, for it would weaken the cow too much if it was always kept

with her. It is sufficient to let calves suck two or three times in a

day; and to fatten them quickly, they should every day have raw eggs,

and boiled milk and bread. At the end of four or five weeks calves

thus taken care of will be excellent eating. It is sufficient to let

a calf suck, designed for the butcher, thirty or forty days; but

those which are intended to grow up should be suffered to suck for

two months at least; the longer they are allowed to suck the stronger

and larger cattle they become. Those brought forth in April, May, and

June, are the fittest to be raised; for calves which come later never

acquire strength enough to resist the injuries of the following winter,

and almost all languish and perish with the cold. Before the milk is

entirely taken from them, they should have a little good grass, or

saintfoine, cut fine to accustom them by degrees to their future food;

after which they should be entirely separated from the mother, and not

suffered to go near her, either in the stable, or field. To the latter

they should be taken every day, and suffered to remain from morning to

night during the summer; but as soon as the cold begins in autumn, they

should be taken out late in the morning and carried home soon in the

evening; and during winter, as cold is extremely hurtful to them, they

should be kept warm in a close well littered stable; and with their

usual food, they should have saintfoine, lucerne, &c. and not suffered

to go out, except in mild weather. Great care must be taken of them for

the first winter, as it is the most dangerous time in their lives; for

they get strength enough during the following summer not to fear the

cold of a second winter.[E]

[E] It is evident here that our author did not draw his conclusions

from a general view of the subject, but possibly rather from the

practice followed in France, which, in many cases, with regard to cows

and calves, is diametrically opposite to that pursued in England, both

in respect to food and management.

At 18 months old, the cow arrives at puberty, and the bull when he is

two years; but though they can engender at this age, it is better to

keep them asunder till they are three years old. These animals are

in their greatest vigour from three weeks old till nine; after this,

neither cows nor bulls are fit for any thing but to fatten for the

slaughter. As at two years of age they are almost at their full growth,

the length of their lives is also, like that of most other animals,

seven times that, or about fourteen years; they seldom live beyond

fifteen.

In all quadrupeds the voice of the male is stronger and deeper than

that of the female; and I believe there is no exception to this rule;

though the ancients say, that the cow, the ox, and even the calf, have

deeper voices than the bull; but the contrary is certain, since he can

be heard much the farthest. What has afforded grounds to think that his

voice is less deep, is, that his bellowing not being a simple sound,

but composed of two or three octaves, the highest of which strikes the

ear most forcibly, and the others are not perceived, yet if we give

attention thereto, we hear a grave sound, much deeper than the voice of

the cow, _ox_ or calf, whose lowings are also much shorter. The bull

only bellows when he is enamoured; the cow more frequently lows through

fear and dread, than from any other cause; and the calf bellows from

pain, want of food, or a desire of being with its mother.

The dullest and most idle animals are not those which sleep the

soundest, or the longest. The sleep of the ox is short, and not very

sound; for he awakes on the least noise. He usually lies on his left

side, and the left kidney is always larger and fatter than the right.

_Oxen_, like other domestic animals, differ in colour; but the red

appears the most common colour, and the redder they are, the more they

are esteemed; some prefer the black, while others assert that those

of a bay colour last longest; that the brown are sooner fatigued and

shorter lived; that the grey, brindled, and white, are not proper for

work, and are only fit to be fattened for slaughter. But whatsoever

be the colour, the coat of the _ox_ should be shining, thick, and

soft to the touch; for if it is rough and uneven, it indicates the

animal is not well, or at least of a weak constitution. An ox for the

plough should be neither too fat nor too lean; his head should be short

and thick, his ears large, with a soft even coat, his horns strong,

shining, and of a middling size, his forehead high, his eyes large

and black, his muzzle large and flat, his nostrils wide, his teeth

white and even, his lips black, his neck short, his shoulders thick

and strong, his breast large, his dewlap, that is, the fore part of

the neck, long, and hanging down to his knees; his loins very large,

his belly spacious and prominent, his flanks thick, his haunches long,

his rump round, his legs and thighs big and nervous, his back straight

and full, his tail hanging down to the ground, and covered with a fine

tuft of curling hair, his feet firm, his skin thick and pliable, and

his muscles large and elevated; he should also be sensible of the goad,

obedient to the call, and well trained: but it is only by degrees, and

beginning early, that we can make him submit willingly to the yoke.

At the age of two years and a half, or three years at most, we should

begin to use him to subjection; if it is deferred later, he frequently

becomes unmanageable. Patience, gentleness, and caresses, are the only

methods to be used; violence and ill-usage only serve to make him

sullen and untractable for ever: he should be stroked and caressed, and

frequently fed with boiled barley, bruised beans, and other nourishing

food of the same kind, mixed with a little salt, all of which he is

very fond; he should be frequently tied by the horns some days before

he is put to the yoke; and he should at first be yoked to the plough

with another ox of the same size which is already trained. They should

be tied together at the rack, and led to the same pasturage, that they

may become acquainted, and habituate themselves to the same common

motions. The goad should never be used at the beginning, as it would

only serve to make him ungovernable. He should only work a little at

a time, for he is soon fatigued when not perfectly broke; and for the

same reason, he should then have more food than at another time.

The _ox_ should only be worked from three years old to ten; and he

should then be taken from the plough to fatten, as the flesh will be

better than if he be kept longer. The age of this animal is known by

his teeth and horns. The first front teeth fall out when he is ten

months old, and are replaced by others which are larger and not so

white; at 16 months those on each side of the middle teeth drop out,

and are replaced by others; and at three years old, all the incisive

teeth are renewed; they are then all long, white, and even; and, in

proportion as the _ox_ advances in years, they decay, and become

unequal and black. It is the same with the bull and cow; so that

neither sex nor castration makes any alteration in the growth or fall

of the teeth, nor does either make any difference in the casting of the

horns, for they fall off at three years equally from the ox, bull, and

cow; these are replaced by other horns, which, like the second teeth,

fall off no more, only those of the _ox_ and cow grow longer than those

of the bull. The growth of these second horns is not uniform. The

first year, that is to say, the fourth of the animal's age, two little

pointed horns sprout, which are even, and terminate at the head by a

kind of knob; the following year this knob grows from the head, pushed

out by a cylinder of horn, which forms and terminates also by another

knob, and so on; for as long as the animal lives, the horns continue to

grow; these knobs are easily distinguished, and by which his age may be

easily known, by adding three years to the number of intervals between

the other knobs.

The horse eats slowly, but almost continually, the _ox_ on the

contrary, eats quick, and takes in a short time all the food which he

requires; after which he lies down to ruminate. This difference arises

from the different conformation of their stomachs. The _ox_, whose

two first stomachs form but one vast bag, can, without inconvenience,

receive a large quantity of grass, which afterwards, by chewing,

digests at leisure. But the horse, whose stomach is single and small,

can receive but a small quantity of grass, he therefore fills it in

proportion as it digests, and passes into the intestines, where is

performed the principal decomposition of the food. Having observed

in the _ox_ and the horse the successive product of digestion, but,

above all, the decomposition of hay, I remarked in the ox, that at the

entrance of that part of the paunch which forms the second stomach, it

is reduced to a kind of green paste; that in this form it is retained

in the plaits of the third stomach; that the decomposition is entire in

the fourth stomach; and that scarcely any thing but the dregs passes

into the intestines. In the horse on the contrary, the food is not

decomposed at all, either in the stomach or in the first intestines,

where it only becomes more flexible and supple, macerated with the

liquor with which it is surrounded, it arrives at the cæcum and colon,

without much alteration; it is principally in these two intestines, of

which the enormous capacity answers to that of the paunch of ruminant

cattle, that in the horse is performed the decomposition of the food;

but this decomposition is never so entire as that which is made in the

fourth stomach of the ox.

For these reasons, and from the inspection of the parts, it seems

easy to conceive how chewing the cud is effected, and why the horse

neither ruminates nor vomits. Chewing the cud is but a vomiting without

straining, occasioned by the re-action of the first stomach upon what

it contains. The ox fills his two first stomachs, or portions of

the paunch. This membrane acts with force on the food it contains;

it is chewed but a little, and its quantity is greatly increased by

fermentation. Were the food liquid, this force of contraction would

occasion it to pass into the third stomach, which communicates with the

other by a narrow conveyance, the orifice of which is situated in the

posterior part of the first, and almost as high as the oesophagus;

thus this conduit cannot admit the food, until it has become somewhat

fluid. The dry parts, must, therefore, rise up again into the

oesophagus, the orifice of which is larger than that of the conduit;

in fact, they go up again into the mouth, and the animal again chews

and macerates them, imbibes them afresh with its saliva, and thus by

degrees liquefies them sufficient to pass into the third stomach, where

it is again macerated before it goes into the fourth; and it is in this

last stomach that the decomposition of the hay is finished, which is

there reduced to a perfect mucilage.

What chiefly confirms the truth of this explanation is, that as long as

the animals suck, or are fed with milk and other liquid aliments, they

do not chew the cud; and that they chew the cud much more in winter,

when they are fed with dry food, than in summer, when they eat tender

grass. In the horse, on the contrary, the stomach is small, the orifice

of the oesophagus is narrow; and that of the pylorus very large. This

alone would render chewing the cud impossible, for the food contained

in this little stomach, though perhaps more strongly compressed

than in the stomach of the ox, does not mount upwards, since it can

easily descend through the pylorus, which is very large; and it is

not necessary that the hay should be reduced to a soft running paste,

because the force of the contraction of the stomach pushes the aliment

through when almost dry.

It is by this difference, then, that the ox chews the cud, and that

the horse cannot perform this operation. But there is still another

difference in the horse, which hinders him from chewing the cud, and

is the reason why he cannot vomit; the passage of the oesophagus

being placed obliquely in the stomach, the membranes of which are very

thick, makes a kind of gutter in them so oblique that it must close

still more instead of opening by the convulsive motions of the stomach.

Although this difference, as well as many others we observe in the

conformation of the bodies of these animals, depend on their constant

nature, nevertheless, there are in the development, more particularly

in the soft parts, differences constantly in appearance, but which may,

and actually do, vary from circumstances. The vast capaciousness of the

ox's paunch, for example, is not entirely owing to Nature; it is not

of that size in its primitive conformation, but attains it by degrees,

from the large quantity of aliment it receives; for, in the calf, which

is not very young, but has eat no grass, the paunch is much smaller in

proportion than in the ox. This capaciousness of the paunch proceeds,

then, from the extension which is occasioned by the large quantity of

aliments, of which I was well convinced by an experiment that appeared

to me decisive. I brought up two lambs of the same age, one on bread,

the other on grass, and when they were a year old, on opening them, I

found the paunch of the lamb which had lived on grass was much larger

than that which had lived on bread.

It is said that _oxen_ which eat slowly are more capable of working

than those which eat quick; that _oxen_ fed on high and dry lands are

more lively, vigorous, and healthy, than those which live on low and

humid grounds; that they are all stronger when fed on dry hay than when

fed with grass; that they meet with more difficulty on the change of

climate than horses, and that, for this reason, _oxen_ for the plough

should never be purchased but in their own neighbourhood.

In winter, as _oxen_ do nothing[F], it is sufficient to feed them on

straw, with a little hay; but at the season they work they should have

more hay than straw, likewise a little bran, or a few oats. If hay is

scarce they should have fresh-cut grass, leaves of ash, elm, oak, &c.

but this food should be given in a small quantity, because the excess

of it, being what they are very fond of, occasion them to avoid bloody

urine; but lucerne, saintfoine, lupins, turnips, boiled barley, &c. are

very good for them, and as they never eat more than is necessary, they

should always be supplied with as much as they will take. They should

not be put to pasture till about the middle of May; they should be

kept at pasture all the summer; and, about the middle of October they

should be brought back to fodder, only observing not to change them too

suddenly from green to dry food, or from dry to green, but to bring

them to it by degrees.

[F] This is not the case in England, as in many counties the farmer,

excepting in hard weather, finds it the best time to keep them in full

employ.

Great heat incommodes this animal more perhaps than great cold. During

summer they should be brought to work at day-break, taken to the

stable, or left to feed in the woods, during the heat of the day, and

not yoked again till three or four in the afternoon. In spring, winter,

and autumn, they may be worked from eight or nine in the morning, till

five or six in the evening. They do not require so much care as horses,

yet to keep them healthy and vigorous they should be curried every

day, and their hoofs carefully greased and washed; they should be taken

to drink at least twice a day; they are fond of water that is fresh and

cool, while the horse loves it muddy and luke-warm.

Nearly the same food and care are requisite for the cow as the _ox_;

but the cow that suckles requires more particular attention, as well in

the chusing as in the management. It is said, that black cows give the

best milk, and that white cows give the most: but of whatever colour,

she should be fleshy, have a brisk eye, and be light in her walk; she

should be young, her milk plentiful, and of a good kind; she should

be milked twice a day in summer, and once in winter; and, if we would

increase the quantity, she must be fed with more succulent food than

herbage.

Good milk is neither too thick, nor too thin; its consistence should

be such, that a drop should preserve its roundness without running. In

colour it should be of a beautiful white: that which is inclinable to

blue or yellow is worth nothing; its taste should be sweet, without

any bitterness or sourness. It is better in the month of May, and

during the summer, than in winter; and it is never perfectly good

but when the cow is of a proper age, and in good health. The milk of

young heifers is too thick, that of old cows is too dry, and during the

winter it is too thick. The milk of the cow is not good when she is in

season, near her time, or has lately calved. In the third and fourth

stomachs of the calves which suck, there are clots of curdled milk,

which, dried in the air, serve to make runnet, and the longer it is

kept the better it is, and it requires but a small quantity to make a

great deal of cheese.

Both cows and _oxen_ love wine, vinegar, and salt, and they will devour

with avidity a seasoned salad. In Spain, and some other countries, they

place near the young calf one of those stones, called salegres, which

are found in salt mines; they lick this salt stone all the time the

mother is at pasture, which excites the appetite, or creates thirst so

much, that the moment the cow returns, the young calf sucks with great

eagerness; and this makes them grow fatter and faster than those to

whom no salt is given. For the same reason, when _oxen_ loath their

food, they give them grass soaked in vinegar, or strewed with salt;

salt may also be given to them, as it excites their appetites in order

to fatten them in a short time. It is usual to put them to fatten when

ten years old; if we stay longer, there is less certainty of success,

and their flesh is not so good. They may be fattened in all seasons,

but summer is generally preferred, because it is attended with less

expence; and by beginning in May or June, we are almost certain of

having them fat before the end of October. When we begin to fatten them

they must not be suffered to work any longer. They should drink much

oftener, and have succulent food in abundance, sometimes mixed with a

little salt, and be left to chew the cud at leisure, and to sleep in

the cow-house during the heat of the day. In four or five months, if

thus attended to, they will become so fat that it will be difficult for

them to walk, or be conducted to any distance but by small journeys.

Cows and bulls, whose testicles are twisted, may also be fattened;

but the flesh of the cow is drier, and that of the bull is redder

and harder than that of the ox, and the latter has always a strong

disagreeable taste.

Bulls, cows, and _oxen_, are very apt to lick themselves, especially

when quiet and at rest; and as this is supposed to prevent their

fattening, it is usual to rub all parts of their bodies which they can

reach with their own dung. When this precaution is not taken, they

raise up the hair of their coats with their tongue, and swallow it in

large quantities. As this substance cannot digest, it remains in the

stomach, and forms round smooth balls, of so considerable a size, as to

incommode and prevent digestion. These balls in time get covered with a

brown crust, which, though nothing but a thick mucilage, becomes hard

and shining; they are only found in the paunch, and if any of the hairs

get into the other stomachs, they do not remain, but seem to pass off

with the aliments.

Animals which have incisive teeth, such as the horse and the ass, in

both jaws, bite short grass more easily than those which want these

teeth in the superior jaw; and if the sheep and goat bite the closest,

it is because they are small, and their lips are thin. But _oxen_,

whose lips are thick, can only bite long grass; and it is for this

reason that they do no harm to the pasture on which they live; as they

only bite off the tops of the young herbage, they do not stir the

roots, and the growth is scarcely checked; instead of which, the sheep

and the goat bite so close, that they destroy the stalk and spoil the

root. Besides, the horse chuses the shortest and most delicate grass,

leaving the largest to grow for seed; but the _ox_ eats these thick

stalks, and by little and little destroys the coarser grass; so that

in a few years, the field in which the horse has lived becomes poor,

and that on which the ox has broused, becomes an improved pasture.

Our oxen, which we must not confound with the buffalo, bison, &c. seem

to be originally of this temperate climate, great heat, or excessive

cold, being equally injurious to them. Besides this species, which is

so abundant in Europe, is not found in the southern countries, and is

not extended beyond Armenia and Persia; nor beyond Egypt and Barbary

in Africa. For in India, the rest of Africa, and even in America, the

cattle have a bunch on the back, or are animals of a different species,

which travellers have called oxen. Those found at the Cape of Good

Hope, and in many parts of America, were carried from Europe by the

Dutch and Spaniards. In general, countries which are rather cold agree

better with our oxen than hot climates; they are larger and fatter in

proportion as the climate is humid, and as it abounds in goodness of

pasture. The oxen of Denmark, Padolia, Ukraine, and Calmuck Tartary,

are the largest; those of England, Ireland, Holland, and Hungary, are

larger than those of Persia, Turkey, Greece, Italy, France, and Spain;

and those of Barbary are the smallest. The Dutch every year bring

from Denmark a vast number of large thin cows, which give more milk

than those of France; and it is possible they are of the breed of cows

which has been carried into Poitou, Aunis, and Charente, for those cows

are larger and much thinner than common cows, and produce double the

quantity of milk and butter. They have milk at all times, and may be

milked all the year, excepting four or five days before they calve.

Though they eat no more than common cows, their pasture, however, must

be excellent; and as they are always lean it is certain that all the

superabundance of their food turns into milk; instead of which, common

cows become fat, and cease to give milk when they have lived some time

in rich pastures. With a bull of this breed, and common cows, a bastard

kind is produced, which is more fruitful, and abounds more in milk than

the common race. These bastard cows have frequently two calves at a

time, and they give milk all the year. These milch cows form a part of

the riches of Holland, from which place they export butter and cheese

to a considerable amount; they give as much milk again as French cows,

and six times as much as those of Barbary.

In England, Ireland, Holland, Switzerland, and other northern

countries, they salt and smoke the flesh of the ox in large quantities,

both for the use of the navy and for the advantage of commerce. They

export also from those countries large quantities of leather; the

hide of the ox, and that of the calf, serving for an infinite number

of uses. The fat is also very useful. The dung of the ox is the best

manure for light dry soils. The horn of this animal was the first

instrument ever made use of for drinking or augmenting sounds; the

first transparent matter ever used for windows and lanthorns. It is now

softened to make boxes, combs, and a thousand other things. But I must

conclude, for, as I said before, Natural History finishes where the

History of the Arts begin.