THE PERIOD OF EMANCIPATION FROM 1791.
In the middle of the eighteenth century a slow but marked improvement in
the condition of the Jews is noticeable. To some extent this is due to
the change in the economic life of the Jews, many of whom were engaged
in manufacturing pursuits and in such mercantile enterprises as were of
noticeable benefit to the state. Some Jews were farmers of the tobacco
monopoly, in many states an important part of the revenue, others engaged
in various manufacturing enterprises and thus received privileges which
exempted them from the disabilities imposed on other Jews. This was the
case in Prussia, where Jewish enterprises created the flourishing textile
industry in and near Berlin. One of these manufacturers was Bernhard
Isaac, in whose house Moses Mendelssohn lived first as tutor and then
as bookkeeper. Frederick the Great gave to some Jews the same rights
as Christian merchants, although he was in general not well disposed
toward the Jews, and would not allow them to engage in agriculture
or ship-building. Aaron Elias Seligmann established a large tobacco
manufactory in Laimen, Bavaria, in 1779, which gave occupation to many
hands; for his merit in developing industry the King of Bavaria bestowed
a baronetcy on him in 1814. Israel Hönig was farmer of the tobacco
monopoly in Austria, and was in 1789 knighted by Emperor Joseph II.
The distinctions bestowed on individual Jews, however, did not improve
the condition of the masses. The progress of liberal ideas made this
question a matter of serious concern for legislators. In England a bill
giving the Jews political rights was passed in 1753, but aroused such
opposition among the populace that the government found itself compelled
to repeal it in the same year. Of more permanent value were the measures
of the humane Joseph II of Austria (1780-1790). In various legislative
acts, and especially in the so-called “Toleranz-Edict” of January 2,
1782, he laid down the principle that the Jews should be treated like
human beings. Although they were still under considerable restrictions,
their lot was in many ways improved, and the Emperor laid special stress
on their education. As a tangible evidence of the improvement in their
condition the abrogation of the poll tax, “Leibzoll,” the Jew badge and
Jew taxes may be noted. The abolition of these mediæval discriminations,
which were based on the principle that the Jew was a foreign and
injurious element of the population, became more and more general by the
end of the eighteenth century.
France abolished the poll tax in 1784. As early as 1781 the Academy of
Metz offered a prize for the best essay on the improvement of the Jews.
The prize was won by Abbé Grégoire, a Catholic priest, who advocated the
abrogation of all Jewish disabilities. About the same time Christian
F. Dohm, an official in the Prussian war department, wrote an essay
on the civil improvement of the Jews, in which he likewise advocated
the granting of full equality to the Jews. This principle became for
the first time a fact when on September 27, 1791, the French National
Assembly passed a bill giving the Jews full civic and political equality
with other citizens.
When the French rule spread over adjacent countries this was everywhere
adopted. Such was the case in Holland in 1796, and in all parts of
Germany which directly or indirectly came under French influence. In
Cologne, where for nearly four hundred years no Jew had been permitted
to reside, Jews began to settle in 1798. In Mayence the population tore
down the gates of the ghetto in 1798, and this was done in Rome when the
French ruled there. In Frankfort-on-the-Main, where the Jews labored
under cruel discriminations, their condition was considerably improved in
1807 by an edict of the Grand Duke, Baron von Dahlberg, and in 1811 they
were given full civil equality. Even reactionary countries like Prussia
could not resist the current of the time, and the edict of March 11,
1812, declared the Jews to be citizens, gave them freedom of residence
and occupation and the right to professorships in the universities; and
although it withheld from them political rights, it promised to grant
them such in the future.
Jews have been drafted into the army in Austria since 1787, and in
Prussia since 1812; but numerous Jews joined the army as volunteers
and distinguished themselves by acts of bravery during the wars of
liberation. In 1809 the Austrian Jew, Israel Hönig, was made lieutenant
for bravery on the battlefield of Aspern, and a few years afterwards was
promoted to the rank of captain. In Prussia several Jews were promoted
to the rank of officers during the Napoleonic wars.
Meantime reaction began to set in. Napoleon, who as commander of the army
in the Orient in 1798, had called upon the Jews to join his army and
conquer Palestine, changed his policy. Moved by complaints against the
business methods of the Jews, he called an assembly of Jewish notables
in 1806 and laid before them twelve questions, including whether the
Jews considered themselves Frenchmen, whether their law permitted them
to take usurious interest from non-Jews and whether intermarriage with
Christians would be permitted. The answers given by this body of men
were satisfactory, and the Emperor in 1807 established a Sanhedrin to
ratify these principles and form a supreme ecclesiastic authority for
all the Jews of the world. While thus apparently showing favor to the
Jews, he issued a law in 1808 which imposed some restrictions on the
freedom of trade of the Jews of Alsace. With his downfall, however, a
general reaction set in. Some states repealed the laws which had given
full freedom to the Jews, while others, among them Prussia, limited the
efficacy of these laws by interpretation.
In Rome, where the rule of the Pope was reinstated, all oppressive
measures were put in force again. In Hamburg and Luebeck, where,
during the French rule, the Jews had enjoyed full equality, the former
restrictions were partly reintroduced. From Luebeck the Jews were
unconditionally expelled in 1816. In some cities of Bavaria attacks on
the Jews were organized by the mob under the cry of “Hep-hep” in 1819,
and an article of the Congress of Vienna of 1815, which declared that
the Jews should retain all the rights they had acquired during the time
of transition, became practically a dead letter.
The July Revolution of 1830 strengthened liberal ideas and brought the
Jewish question up for discussion in various Parliaments, particularly in
Southern Germany. In Baden and Bavaria the petition for the improvement
of the condition of the Jews was regularly met with the demand that
the Jews should first show their willingness to assimilate with their
environment by a change of their religious beliefs and practices.
Legislation made very little progress, and in some instances new
reactionary measures were introduced. King Frederick William III of
Prussia in 1836 ordered that Jews should not have any Christian names.
The decisive change came about after the French Revolution in 1848.
By and by all states of Western Europe recognized in their constitutions
the full civil and political equality of the Jews, and in the Parliaments
which were elected on this basis, Jews were members. Gabriel Riesser
(1806-1864) was one of the vice-presidents of the National Assembly
in Frankfort. The first Austrian Parliament had five Jewish members
and the Diet of Bavaria two. When the storm passed away, a reactionary
spirit again took hold, although the liberties granted to the Jews
were not entirely repealed. Some countries like Austria suspended the
constitution, while others like Prussia interpreted it in a sense which
rendered nugatory some of the rights given to the Jews in theory. This,
however, was mostly the case with regard to the right of holding official
positions. Civic equality and the right to vote at elections and hold
elective offices remained uncontested.
Finally toward the end of the ’sixties even these disabilities were
removed. The Austrian constitution of 1867 granted to the Jews
unrestricted equality. The law of the North German Federation of July
3, 1869, declared that every state must remove all disabilities imposed
upon citizens on the ground of their religious belief. This law was
embodied in the constitution of the German Empire in 1871. Sweden, which
had admitted the Jews only at the end of the eighteenth century, and in
1838 still restricted their residence to four cities, granted them full
equality in 1870. Switzerland, while a republic, had for a long time
restricted the Jews to two places in the Canton of Aargau. Not until 1878
were they given full equality with other citizens. Norway had, until
1851, a law on its statute-book which prohibited even the temporary
residence of Jews in the country.
England made slow but steady progress. In 1830 the first attempt was made
to give the Jews political rights, a year previously the disabilities
imposed on Christian dissenters having been removed. In 1833 Francis H.
Goldsmid was admitted to the bar, and in 1835 David Salomons was elected
sheriff of London and Middlesex, the first municipal office held by a
Jew. In 1845 he was elected alderman and in 1855 Lord Mayor of the city
of London. The entrance of Jews to Parliament was opposed with great
vehemence by the Conservative Party. In 1847 Baron Lionel de Rothschild
was elected to Parliament, but could not take his seat because the
prescribed oath contained “upon the true faith of a Christian.” Not until
1858 was a bill passed which allowed a Jew to omit these words from the
oath. His son, Baron Nathan de Rothschild, was in 1885 admitted as the
first Jew to the House of Lords.
Only in the East of Europe restrictions continued. Czar Alexander I in
1804 issued a law which encouraged the Jews to take up agricultural
pursuits and acquire secular knowledge. This step was isolated, and in
the reign of Nicholas I (1825-1855) the Jews were subjected to terrible
persecutions, the worst of which was that children were forcibly taken
from the houses of their parents and brought up in barracks as soldiers
to serve twenty-five years after they had reached the age required
for the army. Under Alexander II (1855-1881) a slow improvement in
exceptional cases took place. Jews who engaged in manufacturing or
business enterprises, skilled mechanics and those who had received a
college education, were exempt from most of the disabilities imposed on
the masses, but the condition of the latter was not changed. They were
still restricted in their rights of residence and occupation and excluded
from all political rights.
With the assassination of Alexander II a new era of persecutions began.
This culminated in bloody riots, which spread over a great part of
Southern Russia and were periodically repeated afterwards. The bloodiest
persecutions were those of Kishineff and Homel in 1903, and of Odessa and
a great many other cities in Southern Russia in 1905, and of Bialystok
in 1906, when more than a thousand people lost their lives. Even further
restrictions were introduced. Thus a law of May 3, 1882, prohibited
the residence of Jews in rural districts and the acquisition of rural
estates, and while in former times the acquisition of secular knowledge
by Jews was encouraged by the government, laws of December 5, 1886,
and July 6, 1887, restricted the attendance of Jewish students at high
schools and universities to a percentage ranging from three to ten. While
the Jews obtained the right to participate in the elections of the Duma,
the Imperial Parliament, they have no right to participate in municipal
elections and are represented in the municipal boards only by a few
members who are appointed by the government. They are also excluded from
the county boards, Zemstvo.
Similar conditions prevail in Rumania. When that country gained its
autonomy in 1856, it not only denied to the Jews political rights but
declared them to be foreigners. Frequent mob attacks and arbitrary
treatment on the part of the courts and the officials made them
practically outlaws. A hope for improvement seemed to loom up when in
1878 the Congress of Berlin embodied an article in the treaty which
compelled the newly founded sovereign and autonomous states of Servia,
Bulgaria and Rumania to remove from their statute-books all laws
discriminating against citizens on the ground of religious belief. They
complied with this requirement, but Rumania availed itself of a ruse by
which the law was practically rendered nugatory. By declaring the Jews
to be foreigners, and naturalizing some Jews, it apparently complied
with the law, while almost all the 250,000 Jews of the country remained
in their former state of misery, enhanced by new regulations restricting
their economic freedom.
It looked in 1878 as if Europe had guaranteed the fair treatment of the
Jews even in countries of oppression; opposition began in popular ranks,
and in the same year anti-Semitism arose as a new name for hostility
toward the Jews. This first made itself felt in Germany through the
foundation of the Christian Socialist party in 1878, started with the
avowed object of withdrawing from the Jews their political rights,
including that of holding public office and advocating the prohibition of
the immigration of Jews.
From Germany the movement spread to Austria, where it first was taken up
by the radical German party in 1883, and later on by the clericals. It
spread then to Hungary and France, where the publication of Drumont’s “La
France Juive” in 1886 marks the beginning of the movement culminating
in the Dreyfus case. Captain Alfred Dreyfus in 1894 was charged with
high treason in order to stir up anti-Jewish feeling, and this was not
abated until his innocence had finally been established in 1906. Another
sign of an unfavorable change in the attitude of the masses toward the
Jews was the revival of the blood accusation. When in 1840 it made its
appearance in Damascus, where Jews were imprisoned and tortured for this
cause, it seemed that such a return to mediæval barbarism was confined to
the Orient. In 1882, however, it took place in Tisza-Ezlar, Hungary, and
other cases followed in Western Europe: at Xanten, Germany, in 1891, at
Konitz in 1899, and at Polna, Bohemia, in 1900.
The disappointment caused by the unlooked-for reaction manifested
itself also in the attitude of the Jews with regard to their future.
Soon after it had become evident that the condition of the Jews in
Rumania would not be improved by the Treaty of Berlin, and after the
bloody persecutions in Russia had destroyed the hope that Russia would
slowly improve the condition of its Jews, a movement for the settlement
of the Jews in Palestine began. In 1882 the foundation of a society,
“Lovers of Zion,” marked the beginning of a movement looking toward
the resettlement of the Jews in Palestine. It assumed more systematic
shape by the publication of “Der Judenstaat,” by Theodor Herzl in 1896,
which was followed in 1897 by the first Congress of Zionists convened at
Basle, which declared in its platform the object to establish “a legally
secured home for the Jewish people in Palestine.” At the same time an
unprecedented emigration took place from Russia and Rumania to free
countries, particularly to the United States, Canada, Australia and South
Africa, with a smaller but also considerable stream of emigration to
England.
Baron de Hirsch attempted to regulate the emigration by turning it to
Argentine, where he acquired large tracts of land in 1890. Indeed,
agricultural settlements were founded there, although they did not
realize the expectations of those who would have turned large masses of
immigrants into that country.
In spite of the retrogressive movement which the history of the Jews
seemed to present, Western Europe not only retained the principles
enacted by the constitutions promulgated in and after 1848, but
individual Jews have risen to prominence in political life. Almost all
states of Western Europe have had Jews as members of their Parliaments,
and some have obtained prominent positions in the government service.
France had several Jews as ministers. Cremieux was minister of justice in
1848, Godchaux and Achille Fould served under Napoleon III, and Raynal
under the republic. In Italy, Wollemborg was once and Luzzatti six times
minister of finance, and Joseph Ottolenghi was minister of war. In 1910
Luzzatti became premier. Holland had repeatedly Jewish ministers, and
England saw in 1909 the first Jew, Herbert Samuel, member of the cabinet.
The United States had a Jew in the cabinet in the person of Oscar S.
Straus, secretary of commerce and labor (1906-1909). In the Grand Duchy
of Baden, Moritz Ellstaetter was minister of finance (1868-1893). Quite
a number of Jews have occupied positions as judges, as professors at
universities, and in other public activities.
CULTURE
The improvement of the political conditions influenced the intellectual
and social life of the Jews to a considerable degree. This is noticeable
in their literature, education, religious life and finally in their
communal organizations.
Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786), of Dessau, came as a boy to Berlin.
After a youth filled with hardship he found employment in the house of
a manufacturer, first as tutor and then as bookkeeper. His main object
was to raise Jews from their intellectual isolation. He translated the
Pentateuch, the Psalms and some smaller books of the Bible into correct
German, and edited this work with a Hebrew commentary. It soon became
popular and was the medium for teaching the young people the German
language. He also defended Judaism against various attacks and presented
its teaching in a German work, “Jerusalem.” In his work on the Bible,
he was assisted by various co-workers, among whom the most prominent is
Naphtali Herz Wesel, who called himself Hartwig Wessely (1725-1805). The
latter’s epic on the life of Moses, patterned on Klopstock’s “Messias,”
was written in elegant Hebrew verse, and became an inspiration to many
other writers disgusted with the obscure and artificial style of Rabbinic
Hebrew, and having a taste for literary beauty. An organ for such
endeavors was presented by the publication of the first Hebrew magazine,
“Meassef” (1784).
The progress of secular education made Hebrew literature soon disappear
in Western Europe, but the influence of Wessely and his disciples made
itself very strongly felt in the East of Europe, and particularly in
the countries comprising the former kingdom of Poland. Their modern
Hebrew writings introduced the young men to the knowledge of history and
science, and gave them a taste for secular education and for a western
conception of life. Isaac Bär Loewinson (1788-1860) wrote works in
defense of Judaism, and advocated secular culture, patriotism, manual
trades and the emancipation from mediæval conditions still existing in
these countries. Marcus Aaron Guenzburg (1795-1846) worked chiefly as
translator of popular works, such as juveniles like Campe’s “Robinson
Crusoe.”
A more independent character was given to Hebrew literature by Abraham
Mapu (1808-1867) who wrote two novels from Biblical life, “The Love of
Zion,” and “The Guilt of Samaria,” and another describing the life of
the Jew in his Lithuanian home, “The Hypocrite.” Mapu used Biblical
Hebrew with great facility and became the father of a new development in
Hebrew and later in Yiddish, giving to Jewish literature a high literary
character. He was followed by Judah Loew (Leon) Gordon (1833-1892),
whose satirical poems not merely possess a value for the ease with which
the author handled the Hebrew language, but have been a great force
impressing upon the minds of the Jews in Eastern Europe the defects of
their intellectual isolation and the shortcomings of Rabbinic teachings.
Among the later poets Chayim Nachman Bialik, born 1873, is the most
popular. His elegy on the massacre of Kishineff is one of the gems of
modern Hebrew literature.
Yiddish literature from its earliest beginnings in the sixteenth century
was mostly used as a vehicle for the religious instruction of women
and people of little education or merely adapted and translated some
of the popular literature of the countries where its exponents lived.
From the middle of the nineteenth century it commenced to assume a more
independent character and thus secured a place in the world’s history as
is shown by the fact that some of its works were translated into other
European languages. Among the novelists may be mentioned Shalom Jacob
Abramowitsch (born 1836) who writes under the pseudonym, “Mendele the
bookseller,” Shalom Rabinowitsch (born 1859) and, the most popular of
all, Isaac Loeb Peretz (born 1851). A poet who presents the tragic as
well as the humorous side of the New York ghetto, Morris Rosenfeld, born
1864, is to be mentioned; his works have been translated into various
European languages. Of dramatists whose works have occasionally found
their way to the German and English stage there are Shalom Asch, and
Jacob Gordin (1853-1909), who deals with the life of Russian Jews in
America.
The disappearance of the social and intellectual isolation in the life
of the Jews created a special literature which is called the ghetto
novel. This deals with the life of the Jews in the era of transition from
their isolation to modern culture. This literature began in Germany and
its best known representatives are Aaron Bernstein (1812-1884), Leopold
Kompert (1822-1886), Karl Emil Franzos (1848-1904), and, among Christians
who view the life of the Eastern Jews with sympathy, Leopold von
Sacher-Masoch (1835-1895) and Eliza de Orzeska (1842-1910). Sketches from
the life of the Alsatian Jews were presented in French by Alexander Weill
(1811-1898) and in Danish by Meier Aaron Goldschmidt (1819-1887). In the
English language, Israel Zangwill, born 1864, wrote novels dealing with
the life of the foreign Jews in England. Among his works “The Children
of the Ghetto” has obtained a place in the world’s best literature. The
English stories of Martha Wolfenstein (1869-1906) deal with the life of
European Jews.
A place in modern Jewish literature belongs to the Jewish press as it
has developed in the nineteenth century. The first Jewish periodical
that had more than an ephemeral existence was “Meassef,” published in
Hebrew with some parts in German. It began to appear in 1784, and with
some interruptions was kept up until 1810. The oldest periodical still
in existence is the “Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums,” begun by Ludwig
Philippson, rabbi in Magdeburg, in 1837. It was followed by the “Archives
Israélites” in 1840 in Paris, and by the “Jewish Chronicle” in 1841 in
London. Of the numerous periodicals published in the United States, the
oldest still existing is the “American Israelite,” founded by Isaac M.
Wise in Cincinnati in 1854.
The first Hebrew weekly, which dealt not only with Jewish affairs, was
the “Hamaggid,” founded by Lazarus Silbermann in Lyck, East Prussia,
in 1858. The first Hebrew daily paper was the “Hazefirah,” published
first as a weekly in 1862 and afterwards as a daily from 1886. Quite a
number of valuable magazines dealing with Jewish history and literature
have been published since the middle of the nineteenth century in
Hebrew and in various modern languages. “Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift
fuer Juedische Theologie” (1835-1840) and “Juedische Zeitschrift fuer
Wissenschaft und Leben” (1862-1875) were both edited by Abraham Geiger;
the “Monatsschrift fuer Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums,”
begun by Zechariah Frankel in 1854, was discontinued in 1887 and has
been republished since 1891. “Revue des Etudes Juives” dates from 1881;
“Jewish Quarterly Review” appeared from 1888 to 1908. Of the Hebrew
magazines there are “Kerem Hemed,” of which nine volumes were published
from 1833 to 1856, Bikure Ha-ittim (1820-1831), and “Haschiloach” since
1896.
Rabbinic literature of the older type, dealing with the law and Talmudic
dialecticism, has also a great number of representatives during this
period. Among the foremost may be named Moses Schreiber (Sofer), born
at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1762, died as rabbi of Presburg in 1839,
and Akiba Eger (1761-1837). In Western Europe this literature shows
a steady decline. Of the authors whose life belongs entirely to the
nineteenth century may be mentioned Jacob Ettlinger, rabbi of Altona
(1798-1871), and Seligman Bär Bamberger, rabbi of Wuerzburg (1807-1878).
Very numerous, however, are the Rabbinic authors of Eastern Europe and
the Orient, among whom Isaac Elhanan Spector, rabbi of Kovno (1810-1896),
Hayim David Hazan, rabbi of Jerusalem (1790-1868), Hayim Palaggi, rabbi
of Smyrna (1784-1868), and Hayim Hezekiah Medini (1834-1904), may be
mentioned.
Already before Mendelssohn’s time individual Jews in Germany and Austria
distinguished themselves in literature and science. But the education of
the masses was almost entirely confined to Bible and Talmud. With the
popularization of secular knowledge the necessity for schools arose and
the first institution of this kind was founded in Berlin as the “Jewish
Free School” in 1778. The efforts of Emperor Joseph II to promote secular
culture among the Jews of Austria led to the establishment of a primary
school in Prague in 1782. Others followed in different cities: the
Wilhelm Schule of Breslau was founded in 1791; the Herzog Franz-Schule
in Dessau in 1799. Higher schools were the Jacobson Schule in Seesen in
1801, the Samson Schule in Wolfenbuettel in 1803, and the Philanthropin
in Frankfort-on-the-Main in the next year. Even in Eastern Europe, where
religious fanaticism was bitterly opposed to secular education, such
schools came into existence like the one founded in Tarnopol by Joseph
Perls in 1815. The Alliance Israélite Universelle, founded in 1860,
made it one of its principal objects to establish schools for secular
education in the Orient, and it now has a great number of schools
which it maintains in Turkey, Northern Africa and Asia, extending from
Palestine and Asia Minor to Persia and Mesopotamia.
With the growing number of schools the need for special training schools
for Jewish teachers arose. The first of these was founded in Berlin in
1825. More important was the need for training schools for rabbis. The
old method of education by which every young man who devoted himself to
study was a Talmudic scholar was discontinued in Western Europe. On the
other hand, it became necessary to give the rabbis a more systematic
training. The first modern school of this kind was established in
Padua, then under Austrian rule, in 1829. Later the Yeshibah of Metz
was transformed into a Rabbinic seminary and subsequently transferred
to Paris. In 1854 the Rabbinic seminary of Breslau was founded and
this was followed by the establishment of similar institutions in
European countries. In 1875 the first Rabbinic seminary in America,
the Hebrew Union College of Cincinnati, was opened. In New York the
Jewish Theological Seminary was established in 1886. Various educational
institutions devoted to special needs, such as the school for the
deaf-mutes opened in Nikolsburg in 1845, and later transferred to Vienna,
and the first Jewish institute for the blind established in the latter
city in 1872, deserve to be mentioned in this connection.
The removal of the disabilities which kept the Jews from agriculture
and mechanical trades, and the desire of the Jews to direct the young
generation into such pursuits gave rise to quite a number of institutions
all over the world devoted to these purposes. Several of these are
located in the Orient and were founded or subventioned by the Alliance
Israélite. It established the first agricultural school near Jaffa in
Palestine in 1871. The Hebrew Technical Institute of New York, founded in
1884, the agricultural schools at Ahlem, founded 1893, at Woodbine, N.
J., 1891, and at Doylestown, Pa., 1896, may be mentioned.
With the emancipation from Rabbinic studies a new development in Jewish
learning took place. This showed itself in what is called the “Science
of Judaism,” and may be defined as a systematic study of Jewish history
and literature. The pioneer in this work was Leopold Zunz (1794-1886) who
wrote books on the history of Jewish homiletics, on the synagogal poetry
and various minor essays on all phases of Jewish literature. He found
numerous followers, not merely in western Europe, but also in the East,
and thus contributed largely to the intellectual elevation of the Jews.
In Eastern countries the first who wrote on these topics in Hebrew were
Nahman Krochmal (1785-1840) and Solomon Loew Rapoport (1790-1867). The
latter, inspired by the works of Zunz, was the author of biographies
of prominent mediæval rabbis. In Italy we have Isaac Samuel Reggio
(1784-1855) and Samuel David Luzzatto (1800-1865), who used the excellent
collections of old Hebrew prints and manuscripts for the elucidation of
the history of Jewish literature. The external side of the literature
was presented in erudite form by the great bibliographer Moritz
Steinschneider (1816-1907). History in more readable form was written
first by Isaac Marcus Jost (1795-1860), and then by Heinrich Graetz
(1817-1891), the latter’s work having gone through various editions
and been translated into French, English, Hebrew and Yiddish. Numerous
authors worked at the elucidation of portions of Jewish history and
carefully edited old manuscripts. Thus they shed light on obscure parts
of the Jewish past and showed the many-sided activity of the Jews during
the long period of their history and their influence on all human
activities.
In this connection the participation of the Jews in spiritual activity
ought to be mentioned. We find them as authors, artists, inventors and
scholars in all lines. Only the most prominent can be named. Ludwig
Boerne, formerly Loeb Baruch (1784-1837), is one of the classic essayists
of German literature. Heinrich Heine (1797-1856) is one of the greatest
of lyric poets. Both Heine and Boerne became converted to Christianity. A
classic author of village idyls is Berthold Auerbach (1812-1882). Among
the greatest tragedians of the world are Eliza Rachel Felix (1821-1858),
in her days the foremost actress on the French stage, and Adolf von
Sonnenthal (1832-1909) considered the most prominent German actor of his
time. Giacomo Meyerbeer (1791-1864) is one of the world’s best known
composers. Moritz Oppenheimer (1800-1881) was a prominent painter, and
his scenes from Jewish life possess, besides their value as works of
art, great worth as historic scenes. Marcus Antokolsky (1842-1902) is
one of the most famous sculptors, and Joseph Israels (born 1824) and Max
Liebermann (born 1849) are among the greatest painters of our age. In
the lines of science and scholarly work the names of prominent Jews are
too numerous to mention.
The great change in the life of the Jews and their education brought
about the necessity of harmonizing their religious practices with their
new life. Thus the reform movement began. The forces which promoted it
were æsthetic, political and dogmatic. In the first class may be reckoned
the efforts of Israel Jacobson (1769-1828). Although not a professional
scholar he was a man of considerable Jewish learning, and his object was
to make the services of the synagogue more attractive to the younger
generation. The synagogue established by him in connection with the
school which he founded in Seesen in 1810 was the first that introduced
some of the reforms which since have been generally accepted, namely, a
sermon in the vernacular and decorum and modern music.
In 1818 the first reform congregation was established in Hamburg. It
was followed in 1824 by a similar organization in Charleston, S. C.;
this, however, was soon dissolved. These synagogues introduced a ritual
different from the one which had up to this time been generally in
use. The most important changes were those which eliminated the belief
in the return of the Jews to Palestine and consequently also in the
restoration of the sacrificial cult. These were followed by an attempt
to present systematically the teachings of modern Judaism and to apply
the principles of the modern critical school to the whole of Jewish life,
particularly the observance of the dietary and marriage laws.
The desire to work in harmony led to the convocation of Rabbinic
assemblies, the first of which was held in Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1844.
As the exponent of the most radical views Samuel Holdheim (1806-1860) is
to be mentioned. It was his idea that Judaism had lost all its former
national significance. On this basis the reform congregation of Berlin,
whose first rabbi Holdheim was, was established in 1845, introducing for
the first time solemn services on Sunday.
The most prominent scientific exponent of the reform idea was Abraham
Geiger (1810-1874), one of the most prominent workers in scientific
Jewish literature. He stood for a more historic conception of the reform
principle, although as a Bible critic his position was advanced. His
views were shared by two of the leading rabbis of America, David Einhorn
(1809-1879) and Samuel Hirsch (1815-1889). They, together with Samuel
Adler (1809-1891), represented the progressive ideas of German theology
in America.
In 1842 reform was definitely introduced in the synagogue of Charleston,
S. C., following the example set by the foundation of the West London
Synagogue of British Jews the year previously. In America, however,
reform took strongest hold and soon was accepted by the leading
congregations composed of the native and the naturalized element. The
most prominent figure in the popularization of this movement in America
was Isaac Mayer Wise (1819-1900).
A more conservative view, usually spoken of as that of historic Judaism,
was represented by Zechariah Frankel (1801-1875). He stood for freedom of
thought in theoretical matters but advocated conservatism in worship and
practice. Another division was formed by those who stood uncompromisingly
for the preservation of the traditional Jewish life based on a strict
belief in the divine origin of the Bible and the authenticity of
Rabbinic interpretation, differing from the old school only in so far
as they admitted secular education. The chief exponent of this thought
was Samson Raphael Hirsch (1808-1888). In America his views were
represented by Isaac Leeser (1806-1868) and Sabato Morais (1823-1897),
while a compromising attitude was taken by Benjamin Szold (1829-1902)
and Marcus Jastrow (1829-1903). The traditional view of Judaism in the
sense in which it had generally existed until the latter half of the
eighteenth century, was restricted to the Orient and Eastern Europe and
to congregations formed by recent immigrants from these countries in
Western Europe and America. As a literary champion of this uncompromising
attitude Hillel Lichtenstein (1815-1891) deserves mention.
One of the features of modern Jewish development is the communal
organization rendered possible by the freedom of movement in religious,
charitable and political activities. The Alliance Israélite Universelle
deserves for this the first place. It was founded for the purpose
of defending the interests of the Jews in countries of oppression
and promoting their economic and moral as well as their intellectual
status. This organization was followed by others with similar objects,
the Israelitische Allianz of Vienna, started in 1873, the Anglo-Jewish
Association, founded in 1871, and the Hilfsverein der deutschen Juden, in
1901.
Of the many organizations confined to particular countries the
Deutsch-Israelitischer Gemeinde-Bund, founded in 1869, and the Union
of American Hebrew Congregations, established in 1873, deserve special
mention. Very numerous are the societies created for the promotion of
the welfare of the Jews, and aside from the local institutions, like
hospitals, homes for the aged, orphan asylums and sanitariums, the
societies for the promotion of mechanical trades and agriculture are
distinctly a product of the Jewish conditions of the nineteenth century.
Of organizations having a wider scope, the Jewish Colonization
Association founded by Baron Moritz de Hirsch in 1891, has the greatest
capital. These schemes of colonization, to which the work done by the
Zionist organizations and that contemplated by the Jewish Territorial
Organization founded in 1905, have to be added, are as yet only in their
infancy. In general, however, since the French Revolution there has been
a steady progress of Jewish life in all directions.
INDEX
Aaron ben Elijah, 43
Abarbanel, Isaac, 65
Abaje, 34
Abba Areka (Rab), 33
Abbahu of Cæsarea, 31
Abderrahman, 39
Abeles, Lazarus, 79
Abraham ibn Ezra, 49
Abramowitsch, Shalom Jacob, 102
Abulafia, Meir, 66
Acosta, Uriel, 76
Adereth Elijahu, 34
Adler, Samuel, 110
Ælia Capitolina, 22
Agobard, 38
Agrippa, 16, 17
— II, 17
Ahai of Shabha, 41
“Aharonim,” 86
Akedat Yizhak, 65
Akiba, 22, 25, 26, 27, 41
Albigenses, 63
Albo, Joseph, 59, 64
Alcharizi, Judah, 51
Alexander I, 96
— II, 96
— Jannai, 13
—, son of Aristobul, 14
— the Great, 8
—, successors of, 9
Alexandra Salome, 13
Alfasi, Isaac, 51, 66, 67
Algiers, Chief Rabbi of, 67
Alkabez, Solomon Halevi, 86
Alkymus, 12
Alliance Israélite Universelle, 106, 107, 111
Alorqui, Joshua, 59, 66
Alphonso X, 58
Alsace, 55, 58, 74, 93, 103
Ambrosius, 37
America, 83, 99, 100, 109, 110, 111
America, Early Jewish Communities in, 81, 82
American Revolution, 82
Amolo, 39
Amoraim, 31
Amram Gaon, 41
Amsterdam, 75, 76, 81, 82, 100
Anan ben David, 43
Anatoli, Jacob, 65
Anglo-Jewish Association, 111
Antigonus, 9
—, 14
Anti-Jewish books, 38, 39, 73, 79
Antiochus III, 9
— IV (Epiphanes), 9, 11
— V, 11
Antipater, 13, 14
Anti-Semitism, Rise of, 98
Antokolsky, Marcus, 108
Antony, 14
Apollonius, 10
Arabs, 35, 39, 48, 49, 58
Arama, Isaac, 65
Arbues, Peter, 60
Archelaus, 15
Arians, 38
Aristobul, 13
—, 13, 14
Armleder, John, 55
Artaxerxes, 8
— III, Ochus, 8
Aruk, 41, 51
Aryeh Lob, 87
Ascarelli, Deborah, 84
Asch, Shalom, 103
Ashe, Rab, 34
Asher ben Yechiel, 67
Auerbach, Berthold, 108
Augustus, 16
Austria, 79, 91, 92, 94, 95, 98, 105
Auto-da-fe, 60, 61, 81
Avignon, 57
Azariah dei Rossi of Ferrara, 84, 85
Babylonia, 7, 8, 31, 32, 33, 40
Bacharach, Jair Hayyim, 87
Bahya ibn Pakuda, 48, 64
Bajazed II, Sultan, 70
Balkans, 63
Bamberger, Seligman Bär, 105
Barcelona, Disputation at, 58
Bar Kochba, Simeon, 22, 26
Bashjazi, Elijah, 43
Basle, Zionist Congress at, 99
Bavaria, Mobs in, 93
Bela IV, 62
Benedict XIII, 59
— of York, 48
Benjamin of Nehawend, 43
Berlin, 72, 75, 79, 81, 90, 100, 106, 110
—, Treaty of, 97, 99
Bernard of Clairvaux, 47
Bernardin of Feltre, 56, 61
Bernstein, Aaron, 103
Besht, Israel, 78
Bevis of Hampton, Sir, 84
Bialik, Chayim Nachman, 102
Bialystok, 96
Bikure Ha-ittim, 104
Black Plague, 55
Blois, France, 48
Blood-accusation, 47, 53, 56, 61, 78, 79, 98
Bobo book, 83
Boerne, Ludwig, 108
Bohemia, 62
Bonds, Annulling of, 54
Brazil, 81
Breslau, 56, 68
—, Rabbinic Seminary at, 106
Bruna, Israel, Trial of, 68
Bulgaria, 97
Byzantine Empire, 30, 37
Cæsar, 14
Cæsarea, 17
Caligula, 16
Callistus, 23
Calvin, 73
Capistrano, John, 56, 62
Caro, Joseph, 65, 85, 86
Carpentras, 57
Casimir the Great, 62
Cestius Gallus, 18
Champagne, province of, 52
Charlemagne, 39, 46
Charles II of England, 75
— III of France, 39
Charleston, S. C., Reform Congregation at, 109, 110
Charters, 46, 47, 62
Chazars, 44, 49
“Children of the Ghetto,” 103
Chmelnicki, 78
Cincinnati, Rabbinic Seminary of, 106
Claudius, 17
Clemens, Flavius, 21
Clementina, 21
Cohen, Joseph, 88
—, Sabbatai, 86
—, Tobias, 89
Cologne, 56, 92
Colon, Joseph, 68
Conforte, David, 88
Constantine, 29, 46
Constantinople, Conquest of, 63
Cordova, Jews in Caliphate of, 39
Crassus, 14
Cremieux, 100
Crescas, Hasdai, 64
Cromwell, 75, 81
Crusades, 47, 57, 62
Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, 30
Cyrus, 7
Czars, 96
Dahlberg, Baron von, 92
Damascus, Blood Accusation in, 98
Dante, 65
David Halevi, 86
David ben Zakkai, 42
del Medigo, Jos. Sol., 84
Demetrius I, 11
Dessau, 79
Deuterosis, 30
Deutsch-Israelitischer Gemeinde-Bund, 11
Dialecticism (see Pilpul)
Dio Cassius, 21
Diocletian, 28
Disputations, 58, 59
Divina Commedia, 65
Dod Mordecai, 44
Dohm, Christian F., 91
Dominican Friars, 63, 64, 66, 73, 74
Domitian, 20
Donin, Nicholas, 57, 64
Donmah, 77
Donolo, Sabbatai, 45
Dramatists, Yiddish, 103
Dreyfus, Capt. Alfred, 98
Drumont’s “La France Juive,” 98
Duma, 97
Dunash ibn Labrat, 39
Duran, Simeon ben Zemach, 68
Eben Bohan, 65
— Haezer, 67
Eck, John, 73
Edward I, 54
Eger, Akiba, 105
Einhorn, David, 110
Eisenmenger, J. A., 79
Eldad Hadani, 44
Eleazar ben Azariah, 25
— ben Jehudah, 68
— ben Kallir, 45
— of Modin, 22
— bar Padath, 31
Eliezer ben Hyrkanos, 25
Elijah Levita, 83
— de Vidas, 86
— del Medigo, 66
— of Wilna, 88
Elisha ben Abuyah (Acher the Apostate), 26
Ellstaetter, Moritz, 100
Emden, city, 75
—, Jacob, 88
Emigration from Russia and Rumania, 99
Emunot Wedeot, 42
England, 54, 75, 82, 91, 95, 100, 110
En Jacob, 85
“Entdecktes Judenthum,” 79
Eshkol Hakofer, 43
Ethics, 76
Ets Hayim, 43
Ettlinger, Jacob, 105
Expulsion of Jews, Arabia, 36
—, Austria, 74
—, Berlin, 75, 79
—, Bohemia, 74
—, England, 54, 75
—, France, 57
—, Germany, 56, 57
—, Hungary, 62
—, Luebeck, 93
—, Portugal, 59, 60
—, Spain, 60, 62
—, Vienna, 79
Eybeschuetz, Jonathan, 87, 88
Ezra, the Scribe, 8, 32
—, the Kabbalist, 69
Ezriel, 69
Felix, Eliza Rachel, 108
Ferdinand of Spain, 60, 70
— I of Austria, 74
Firkovitch, Abraham, 44
“Fiscus Judaicus,” 20, 21
Flagellants, 55
Fould, Godchaux and Achille, 100
France, 37, 38, 39, 48, 53, 54, 57, 58, 68, 91, 98, 100
Frank, Jacob, 77
Frankel, Zechariah, 104, 110
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 80, 92, 110
Franzos, Karl Emil, 103
Frederick II of Germany, 53, 65
— the Belligerent, Law of, 53
— the Great, 90
— William III, 94
— William, of Brandenburg, 79
French Revolution, 94
Gabirol (see Solomon ibn)
Gamaliel II, 24, 25
Gan Eden, 43
Gans, David, 88
Gaonim, 40, 41, 42, 43
Gaza, Battle of, 9
Gedaliah ibn Yahya, 88
Geiger, Abraham, 104, 110
Germany, 36, 37, 39, 46, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 68, 72, 73, 74, 75, 79,
80, 81, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 98, 101, 103
Geronimo de Santa Fe (see Alorqui, Joshua)
Gershom ben Judah (Meor Hagolah), 46
Gessius Floras, 17
Ghetto, 71, 92
Ghetto novel, 103
Goldschmidt, Meier Aaron, 103
Goldsmid, Francis H., 95
Gombiner, Abraham, 86
Gomperz, Elijah, 79
Gordin, Jacob, 103
Gordon, Judah Loew, 102
Goths, 37, 38
Graetz, Heinrich, 108
Granada, 49
Grégoire, Abbé, 91
Gregory I, 37, 38
Gregory of Tours, 38
Guenzburg, Aaron, 101
“Guide of the Perplexed,” 50
Habib, Jacob ibn, 84
Hadrian, 21, 22
Halakot Gedolot, 40
Halberstadt, 79
Halle, 79
Hamaggid, 104
Hamburg, 93, 109
Hamon, Joseph, 70
Hanina, Rabbi, 31
Haschiloach, 104
Hasdai ibn Shaprut, 39, 44
Hasidim, 77
—, Sefer, 68
Hasidism, 77, 78
Hasmonæans, 11
Hay Gaon, 42
Hayon, Nehemiah, 77
Hazan, Hayim David, 105
“Hazefirah,” 104
Hechasid, Judah ben Samuel, 68
Heilprin, Jehiel, 88
Heine, Heinrich, 108
Helic, Luke, 73
Heliodorus, 10
Henry II of Aragon, 58
— III of England, 54
— IV of Germany, 46
“Hep-hep” riots, 93
Heraclius, 30
Herod, 14, 15
— Antipas, 15
Herzl, Theodor, 99
Hezekiah, 14
—, Gaon, 43
Hilfsverein der deutschen Juden, 111
Hillel, 23, 24
— II, 32
Hilperic, 38
Hirsch, Baron Moritz de, 99, 112
Hirsch, Samson Raphael, 111
—, Samuel, 110
Hisda, 34
Hizuk Emunah, 43
Hof-Jude, Hof-factor, 79
Holdheim, Samuel, 110
Holland (see Amsterdam)
Homel, 96
Hönig, Israel, 90, 92
Horowitz, Isaiah, 86
Hoshen Mishpat, 67
Host Desecration, 54, 56, 72
Huna, 33, 34
Hungary, 62
Hussites, 56
Hyrcan, John, 12
Ibn Ezra, Abraham, 49, 85
—, Ganah, 39
—, Moses, 50
— Tibbon, Samuel, 50, 64
Idumæans, 12, 13, 15
Ikkarim, 59, 64
Immanuel ben Solomon, 65
Innocent III, 48
— IV, 53
Inquisition, 59, 60, 63, 80, 81
Ipsus, Battle of, 9
Isaac ben Meir, 51
— ben Sheshet (Ribash), 67
—, Bernhard, 90
—, Don, 58
— of Troki, 43
—, son of Rabed, 69
Isabella, 60
Isaiah di Trani, 68
Ishmael, Rabbi, 26
Isidore of Seville, 38
Islam, 36, 77
Israelitische Allianz, 111
Israels, Joseph, 108
Isserlein, Israel, 68
Isserls, Moses, 85
Jabneh, School of, 24
Jacob ben Asher, 67, 85
Jacobson, Israel, 109
Jacob ben Meir (see Rabbenu Tam)
James VIII, 58
Jannai, 45
—, Alexander, 13
Jason (Joshua), 10
Jastrow, Marcus, 111
Jerome, 32
Jerusalem, Siege of, by Titus, 18
—, by Hadrian, 22
—, by Saladin, 63
Jesuits, 71, 78, 79
Jew Badge (see Yellow Badge)
Jewish Colonization Association, 112
— Propaganda, in Rome, 21, 29
— Territorial Organization, 112
Joachim II, Margrave, 75
Johanan bar Nappaha, 31
—, high priest, 8
— ben Zakkai, 24
John, King of England, 54
— Hyrcan, 12
Jonathan, Maccabee, 12
Jose bar Halafta, 27
— ben Jose, 45
—, Rabbi, 32
Joseph II of Austria, 91, 105
—, Rab, 34
—, Raphael, 77
—, son of Samuel Hanagid, 49
—, son of Tobias, 9
Josephus, Flavius, 18, 45
Joshua ben Hananiah, 25
— ben Jehozadak, 8
—, Jacob, 87
Josippon, 45
Jost, Isaac Marcus, 108
Jotapat, Siege of, 18
Judæo-Christian sect, 77
Judah bar Ezekiel, 34
— bar Ilai, 27
— ben Samuel Hechasid, 68
— Hadassi, 43
— Halevi, 44, 49, 64
— Hanasi, 27, 28, 30, 33
— successors of, 31
— Hayug, 39
—, son of Hezekiah, 16
—, the Elder, 64
—, the Maccabee, 11
—, the Patriarch, 23
Jüdenfeind, 73
Judenstaat, Der, 99
Julian, the Apostate, 29
Julius Severus, 22
Justinian, 30
Kabbala, 41, 45, 63, 69, 77, 84, 86, 87, 88
Kalla, 40
Kalonymos ben Kalonymos, 65
— family, 68
— of Lucca, 39, 46
Kapsali, Elijah, 68
Kara, Simeon, 66
Karaites, 43, 44
Karben, Victor von, 74
Kerem Hemed, 104
Kimhi, David, 62, 63
—, Joseph, 64
—, Moses, 64
Kishineff, 96, 102
Kohut, Alexander, 41
Kompert, Leopold, 103
Krochmal, Nahman, 107
Kuzari, 44, 49, 64
Ladino, 63, 70
Laimen, Bavaria, 90
Landau, Ezekiel, 87
Lateran Council, 48
Lattes, Bonet de, 71
Leeser, Isaac, 111
Legislation, Mediæval, 53
Lehman, Behrendt, 79
“Lekah Dodi,” 86
Lemberg, 78
Lemlein, Asher, 72
Leo X, 71
Leon, Judah Messer, 65
Leopold (Lippold), 75
— I of Austria, 79
Levi ben Gershom, 64
—, Herz, 79
Levita, Elijah, 71, 83
Libman, Jost, 79
Lichtenstein, Hillel, 111
Liebermann, Max, 108
Literary Activity in Europe, Earliest, 45
Lithuania, 78
Liturgy, 41, 49
Locke, John, 82
Loeb, Aryeh, 87
Loewe Ben Bezalel, 85
Longobards, 37
Louis I of Germany, 39
— of Hungary, 62
— IX of France, 57
— X of France, 57
— of Hesse, 73
Luebeck, 93
Luria, Isaac, 86
—, Solomon, 85
Luther, 72, 73
Luzzatti, Luigi, 100
Luzzatto, Moses Hayyim, 87
—, Samuel David, 107
Lysias, 11
Maaseh Tobiyah, 89
Maccabee, Judah the, 11
Machir ben Aba Mari, 66
Magnesia, Battle of, 9
Maimonides, 50, 51, 63, 66, 85
Mammæa, 23
Manuel, 60
Mapu, Abraham, 101, 102
Marannos, 59, 60, 61, 70, 72, 76, 80, 81
Marcus Aurelius, 23
Margaliot, Jacob, 73
Margaritha, Antonius, 73
Mariamne, 15, 16
Marinus (see ibn Ganah)
Martinez, Ferdinand, 58
Massada, Siege of, 19
Masseket Purim, 65
Mattathiah, 11
Mayence, 46, 92
“Meassef,” 101, 103
Medigo (see del Medigo, Jos. Sol.)
Medigo, Elijah del, 66
Medini, Hayim Hezekiah, 105
Meir of Rothenburg, 67
—, Rabbi, 27
Meisels, Mordecai, 74
Menahem ben Saruk, 39
Menasseh ben Israel, 75
Mendele the bookseller (see Abramowitsch)
Mendelssohn, Moses, 90, 100, 101, 105
Mendes, Joseph (Duke of Naxos), 70
—, Gracia, 70
Menelaus, 10
Meor Enayim, 84
Merovingian kings, 37
Messiah, 33, 36, 70, 71, 76, 77, 86
Metz, 91, 106
Meyerbeer, Giacomo, 108
Mezdzyrzecz, Baer, 78
Midrah, 45, 65, 66
Miklol, 63
Ministers, Jews as, 100
Mishnah, Compilation of, 27, 30, 31, 33, 34
—, Commentary, 50, 64
Mishneh Torah, 50
Mizrahi, Elijah, 83
Mob Violence, 29, 40, 37, 46, 48, 54, 55, 57, 62, 78, 79, 80, 93,
96, 99
Modena, Leon, 84
Modin, 11
Mohammed, 35, 36
Mohammedans, 29, 39, 40, 70, 72
Molcho, Solomon, 72
Monism, 76
Morais, Sabato, 111
Moravian Brethren, 73
Mordecai ben Hillel, 67
— ben Nissim, 44
Moreh Nebukim, 50, 63, 64, 67
Morteira, Rabbi Saul, 76
Moses ben Maimon (see Maimonides)
— ben Nachman, 58, 66
— ben Uri, 75
— ibn Ezra, 50
— of Coucy, 68
— of Leon, 69
Nahman bar Jacob, 34
— of Bratzlav, 78
Naples, 37
Napoleon I, 93
— III, 100
Nathan of Gaza, 77
— of Rome, 41, 51
Naxos, Duke of, 70
Nebuchadnezzar, 7
Nehardea, School in, 33
Nehemiah, 8
— Hakohen, 77
Nero, 18
Nerva, 21
New York, 102
—, Rabbinic Seminary of, 106
Nicholas I, 96
Nigrinus, 73
Nikanor, 12
Nikolsburg, 106
Norway, 95
Nuremberg, 67, 68
Odessa, 96.
Offenbach, 77
Oglethorpe, James, 82
Omar, Covenant of, 36
Onias III, 10
Oppenheimer, Moritz, 108
—, Samuel, 79
Orah Hayyim, 67
Organizations, 111, 112
Orzeska, Eliza, 103
Ostrogoths, 36
Ottolenghi, Joseph, 100
Padua, School at, 106
Palaggi, Hayim, 105
Palestine, Character of Studies in, 32
Pantheism (Monism), 76
Parliaments, Jews as members of, 94, 95, 97
Parsees, 28
Parthians, 14, 28
Paul IV, 71
Payetanim, 45
Peretz, Isaac Loeb, 102
Perls, Joseph, 105
Persecutions (see Mob Violence, Host Desecration, and Blood
Accusation)
Persia, 8, 30, 40
Peter the Cruel, 58
Petronius, 16
Pfefferkorn, John, 73, 74
Pharisees, 13, 21
Philip, son of Herod, 15
— IV of France, 57
— V of France, 57, 72
Philippi, Battle of, 14
Philippson, Ludwig, 104
Pick, Isaiah, 88
Pilpul, 34, 87, 88
Pirke, Rabbi Eliezer, 45
Pius V, 71
—, Marcus Antoninus, 23, 26
Piyut, 45
Podolia, 77
Poland, 57, 62, 71, 77, 78
Pompey, 14
Pontius Pilate, 16
Popes, 37, 38, 48, 53, 57, 59, 61, 70, 71, 72, 74, 93
Portugal, 60, 76, 80, 81, 82
Press, Jewish, 101, 103, 104
Printing, 62, 71, 75
Priscus, 38
Propaganda, 20, 29
Protestantism, 72, 73
Prussia (see Berlin and Germany), 90, 92, 94
Ptolemy, of Egypt, 9
—, son-in-law of Simon the Maccabee, 12
Pumbeditha, School of, 34, 40, 42
Quietus, 21
Quirinius, 16
Rab (see Abba Areka)
Raba, 34
Rabba bar Nahmani, 34
Rabbenu-Hakadosh (see Judah Hanasi)
— Tam, 51, 52
Rabbi (see Judah Hanasi)
Rabina, 34
Ramban, 66, 69
Rapoport, Solomon Loew, 107
Rashba (see Solomon ibn Adret)
Rashbam, 51, 52
Rashi, 51, 52
Ratisbon, 56, 57
Ravenna, 37
Rebellion of Jews, under Trajan, 21
Reform Movement, 109, 110, 111
Reformation, 72, 73, 74, 78, 83
Reggio, Isaac Samuel, 107
Renaissance, 73, 83, 84
Resh Galutha, 40
— Methibta, 40
Responsa (see Teshubot)
Reubeni, David, 72
Reuchlin, John, 73, 74
Reyna, 70
Rhode Island, 76, 82
Ribash (see Isaac ben Sheshet)
Richard Cœur de Lion, 48
Riesser, Gabriel, 94
Rieti, Moses, 65
Rindfleisch riot, 55, 67
Roettingen, 54
Rokeah, 68
Romano, Elijah, 71
—, Solomon, 71
Rome, 13 sq. (see Popes), 93
Rosenfeld, Morris, 102
Rosh, 67
Rosheim, Josel, 74
Rossi, Azariah dei (see Azariah)
Rothschild, Baron Lionel de, 95
—, Baron Nathan de, 96
Rumania, 97, 99
Russia, 96, 97, 99
Saadya Gaon, 42, 43
Sabbatai Zebi, 76, 77, 88
Saboraim, 34
Sacher-Masoch, Leopold von, 103
Sadducees, 13
Safed, 70, 86
Saladin, 63
Salman ben Jeroham, 43
Salome Alexandra, 13
Salomons, David, 95
Samaritans, Conversion of, 12
Samuel of Nehardea, 33
— ben Meir (see Rashbam)
—, Herbert, 100
— Hanagid, 49
— ibn Adijah, 35
— ibn Hofni, 42
San Benito, 60
Sanhedrin, 24, 25, 33, 93
Sargon, 7
Schools, Modern, 105, 106, 107
Schreiber, Moses (Sofer), 104
“Science of Judaism,” 107
Secular Education, Rise of, 101, 105
Seder Rab Amram, 41
Seesen, 109
Sefer Hayashar, 52
Seleucus, 9
Seligmann, Aaron Elias, 90
Selim I, Sultan, 70
Semag, 69
Servia, 97
Severus, Alexander, 23
—, Septimius, 23
“Shebet Jehudah,” 88
Sheeltot, 41
Shepherd Crusaders, 57
Sherira, Epistle of, 42
Shesheth, 34
Shtadlan, 74
Shulhan Aruk, 65, 85, 86
Sicarii, 17
Sidra, 40
Silbermann, Lazarus, 104
Simeon bar Isaac, 46
— ben Azai, 26
— ben Gamaliel II, 27
— ben Lakish, 31
— ben Shetach, 13
— ben Yohai, 69, 88
— Kayara, 40
—, the Stylite, St., 30
Simon, the reformer, 10
—, the Maccabee, 12
—, of Trent, 56
Sofer, Moses, 104
Soliman II, Sultan, 70
Solomon ben Abraham of Montpellier, 66
— ben Isaac (see Rashi)
— Halevi (Paul, Bishop of Burgos), 59
— Ibn Adret (Rashba), 67
— ibn Gabirol, 49
— Ibn Verga, 88
—, son of Judah, 64
Soncino family, 75
Sonnenthal, Adolf von, 108
Spain, 38, 39, 48, 49, 58, 70, 81, 88
Spector, Isaac Elhanan, 105
Speyer, 46, 47
Spinoza, Benedict, 76
Steinhart, Joseph, 88
Steinschneider, Moritz, 108
Straus, Oscar S., 100
Stuyvesant, Governor, 76, 82
Sullam, Sarah Copia, 84
Sultans, 70
Sura, School in, 33, 40, 42
Sweden, 95
Switzerland, 95
Syria, 9, 10, 12
Szold, Benjamin, 111
Talmud, Burning of, 57
—, Palestinian, 32
—, Babylonian, 34, 46, 51, 52, 64, 67, 71, 84
—, Travesty on, 65
Talmudic Dictionaries, 41, 51
— Literature, 66
Tanaim, 27, 31
Targum, 34
Tarnopol, 105
Tashbez (Simeon Duran), 68
Terumat Ha-Deshen, 68
Teshubot (Responsa), 40, 42, 46, 67, 68
Theodoric, 36
Theodosius I, 29
— II, 30
Tiberias, School of, 31
Tineius Rufus, 22
Tishbi, 83
Titus, 18
Toledo, 58
“Toleranz-Edict,” 91
Torquemada, Thomas, 60
Tortosa, Disputation at, 59
Tosafists, 52
Tractatus, Theologico Politicus, 76
Trajan, 21
Trani, Isaiah di, 68
Tremellius, Emanuel, 73
Trent, Blood Accusation at, 56, 61
—, Council of, 71
Trigland, Jacob, 43
Tryphon, 12
Turim, 67
Turks, 63, 70
Union of American Hebrew Congregations, 112
United States (see America)
Uriel Acosta, 76
Usha, Synod at, 26
Usque, Samuel, 88
Varus, 16
Venice, 70, 71, 72
Vespasian, 18, 24
Vidas, Elijah de, 86
Vienna, Congress of, 93
—, School for blind and deaf mutes at, 106
Visigoths, 38
Vital, Hayyim, 86
Volhynia, 77
Washington, George, 82
Weill, Alexander, 103
Wenzel, King of Bohemia, 55
Wertheimer, Samson, 79
Wesel, Naphtali Herz, 101
Wessely Hartwig (see Wesel)
West India Company, 76
William of Norwich, 47
Williams, Roger, 76, 82
Wise, Isaac M., 104, 110
Wolf, Moses Benj., 79
Wolfenstein, Martha, 103
Wolkenburg Castle, 47
Wollemborg, 100
Worms, 46
Wuerzburg, 47
Yalkut Machiri, 66
— Shimeoni, 66
Yellow Badge, 48, 58, 71, 91
Yezirah, Sefer, 41
Yiddish, 63, 102
Yoreh Deah, 67
Zadok, 13
Zangwill, Israel, 103
Zealots, 16, 18, 24
“Zemah David,” 88
Zemah Gaon, 41, 51
Zemstvo, Jews excluded from the, 97
Zerahiah Halevi, 67
Zerubbabel, 8
Zebi, Sabbatai (see Sabbatai)
Zion, Ode to, 49
—, Lovers of, 99
Zionism, 99, 113
Zohar, 69, 88
Zunz, Leopold, 107