ANTIQUE TABRIZ SILK RUG
SIZE 8 × 6.3
_This interesting and valuable rug is of antique Tabriz weave, of finely
blended colors, and rare design. It represents the individual squares on
the floor of a mosque, each one of which may be occupied by a worshipper
kneeling in prayer. Rugs with a single design of this kind are usual,
but a grouping of many such spaces in one rug is rare. Forms of the Tree
of Life are represented in different panels, and the border is very rich
and handsome. The fabric is fine, the texture soft and firm. The rich
and splendid hues of the various panels are so soft in tone that, while
there are several different colors in juxtaposition, these have been
arranged so deftly and artistically that the effect is perfectly
harmonious. It is impossible to describe in words the mellow richness
and rare art displayed in this unique product of the loom._
OWNED BY MRS. L. G. BURNHAM, BOSTON.
RUGS
ORIENTAL AND OCCIDENTAL ANTIQUE & MODERN
_A Handbook for Ready Reference_
BY
ROSA BELLE HOLT
New and Enlarged Edition, Entirely Reset
_With 33 full-page Illustrations, 12 in full color, and other drawings
in the text, and a Map of the Orient_
CHICAGO A. C. McCLURG & CO. 1908
COPYRIGHT
A. C. MCCLURG & CO.
1901-1908
This Enlarged Edition published October 10, 1908
THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, U.S.A.
PREFACE
TO NEW ENLARGED EDITION
When the first edition of this book was published in 1901, it stood
almost alone as a reference work on Oriental Rugs. In the six years
which have since elapsed, several volumes dealing with the subject have
been published.
The extended knowledge of the public concerning the subject has
materially altered the conditions of buying and selling. It has also
served to increase curiosity and enthusiasm regarding these products of
Oriental workmanship. I have been gratified to observe that a desire for
additional information is sought. My mail has contained an increasing
number of requests for an enlarged edition of my book, and my own
enthusiasm for the subject makes me believe in the interest of my
readers. I take pleasure in sharing with them the results of recent
investigations made in the United States, in the art centres of Europe,
and in the Orient.
ROSA BELLE HOLT.
NEW YORK CITY,
_February 1, 1908_.
PREFACE
While there is a singular lack of books in the English language treating
directly of Rugs,--a theme which is so intensely interesting to
buyers,--it is noteworthy that under the category of Oriental Carpets
are to be found a few volumes of interest. These, however, are too rare
and expensive for the general reader. For this reason I have undertaken
to present in a concise form certain facts that may enable a novice to
appreciate the beauty and interest attaching to rugs, and assist a
prospective purchaser in judging of the merits of any particular rug he
may desire to possess.
For much valuable information on the subject I am indebted to
publications which are referred to in my Bibliography, to correspondence
with Ministers to Oriental countries and Consuls residing therein, to
interviews with rug-dealers in various cities, and to certain learned
Americans, Armenians, Greeks, Syrians and Turks. It has also been my
good fortune to be intrusted, for purposes of description and
reproduction, with many beautiful and rare rugs, from owners who cherish
them as treasures. These true rug-lovers have generously contributed to
whatever there may be of interest in this book.
R. B. H.
NEW YORK CITY,
_August 1, 1901_.
CONTENTS
PAGE
I. HISTORY AND DETAILS OF RUG-WEAVING
The History 15
The Loom and Its Work 22
The Weavers 26
The Materials 30
The Quality 32
The Knotting 34
Designs 37
The Dyes 44
Oriental Colors 47
II. RUG-WEAVING IN EGYPT, PERSIA, AND TURKEY
Rug-Weaving in Egypt 51
Persian Rugs 53
Characteristics of Certain Persian Rugs 58
Turkish Rugs 71
Characteristics of Certain Turkish Rugs 74
III. RUG-WEAVING IN INDIA, AFGHANISTAN, BELUCHISTAN,
CENTRAL ASIA, AND THE CAUCASUS REGION
Indian Rugs 87
Characteristics of Certain Indian Rugs 90
Afghanistan Rugs 95
Beluchistan Rugs 97
Turkoman Rugs 98
Characteristics of Certain Turkoman Rugs 100
Caucasian Rugs 105
IV. MISCELLANEOUS ORIENTAL RUGS
Rugs of the Holy Land 111
Chinese Rugs 113
Japanese Rugs 116
Khilim Rugs 117
Polish Rugs 119
Prayer Rugs 120
Silk Rugs 123
Felt Rugs 126
Hunting Rugs 128
V. RUG-WEAVING IN EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES
Rug-Weaving in Europe and the United States 131
Greek Rugs 132
Moorish and Spanish Rugs 134
Bosnian, Servian, Roumanian, and Bulgarian
Rugs 136
English Rugs 138
French Rugs 141
Rugs of the United States 143
VI. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION
Inscriptions on Rugs 153
Concerning Oriental Symbols 156
Chinese Symbols 157
Egyptian Symbols 158
Indian Symbols 159
Japanese Symbols 160
Persian Symbols 160
Turkish Symbols 160
Miscellaneous Symbols 161
Meanings of Some of the Place-Names Associated with Rugs 162
GEOGRAPHICAL DATA 164
Localities Arranged Geographically 165
Localities Arranged Alphabetically 170
LIST OF AUTHORITIES 175
INDEX 179
LIST OF PLATES
PAGE
Antique Tabriz Silk Rug _Frontispiece_
Oriental Rugs Decorating a Balcony 20
Turkish Loom and Weavers 24
Vats for Washing and Dyeing Wool--Turkey 28
Soumak Rug 30
Indian Rug Designers 32
Sinna Rug 34
Rugs being Transported 38
Wool Drying after Dyeing 44
Antique Persian Rug 54
Khorassan Rug 56
Bijar (Sarakhs) Rug 58
Camel's Hair Rug from Hamadan 60
Feraghan Rug 62
Shiraz Rug 68
Arabian Rug 70
Old Ghiordes Prayer Rug 74
Indian Prayer Rug 78
Indian Loom and Weavers 82
Afghanistan Rug 95
Tekké-Turkoman or "Bokhara" Rug 98
Samarkand Rug 102
Daghestan Rug 106
Kazak Rug 108
Antique Chinese Wool Rug 114
Khilim Rug 117
Old Kirman Prayer Rug 120
Old Anatolian Prayer Rug 122
Persian Silk Rug 124
Derbent Rug 126
Early English Rug 138
Navajo Rug 146
Antique Persian Rug 156
Map of the Orient 164
DRAWINGS IN THE TEXT
A Loom 25
Persian or Sinna Knotting 35
Turkish or Ghiordes Knotting 35
Soumak Weave 35
Five Forms of the Palmette 39, 40
Herati Border 40
Central Design 41
Running Hook Design 41
Pomegranate 41
Palm Leaves 41
Cloud Bands 41
Lozenge 41
Wave-like Designs 42
Rosette 42
Reciprocal Trefoil 42
Central Design 42
Four Characteristic Caucasian Designs 42
Fylfot, or Swastika 42
Guli Hinnai 43
Lotus 43
Medallion 43
RUGS
I
HISTORY AND DETAILS OF RUG-WEAVING
_Fair warp and fitting woof
Weave a web that bideth proof._
MOTTO OF THE CANTERBURY WEAVERS.
RUGS
ORIENTAL AND OCCIDENTAL ANTIQUE AND MODERN
I
THE HISTORY AND DETAILS OF RUG-WEAVING
The History
Rugs, in the house beautiful, impart richness and represent refinement.
Their manufacture was one of the earliest incentives for the blending of
colors in such harmony as to please the eye and satisfy the mind;
consequently, it is one of the most important of the industrial arts.
Since the days when ancient peoples first lay down to sleep wrapped in
the skins of animals, the human intelligence has quickened, and as the
race has become more civilized, rugs have gradually taken the place of
skins. Thus began the industry of rug-weaving, and it has grown to such
an extent that it is now of world-wide importance.
The word _Rug_ is used in this volume in the following sense: "A
covering for the floor; a mat, usually oblong or square, and woven in
one piece. Rugs, especially those of Oriental make, often show rich
designs and elaborate workmanship, and are hence sometimes used for
hangings," In several books rugs and carpets are referred to as
identical. In fact most written information on rugs has been catalogued
under the term _carpets_; and there seems to be good reason for assuming
that the terms _tapestries_ and _carpets_, as used in ancient times,
were synonymous with the word _rugs_ of the present day, for these were
spread loosely on the floor without the aid of fastenings.
Historical references to spinning and to the weaving of tapestries date
back to a very early period. An ancient Jewish legend states that
Naamah, daughter of Lamech and sister of Tubal-Cain, was the inventor of
the spinning of wool and of the weaving of thread into cloth.
On at least two of the wonderful rock-cut tombs at Beni-Hassan, in
Egypt,--2800-2600 B.C.,--there are pictures of weavers at work. In one,
women are filling a distaff with cotton, twisting it with a spindle into
thread, and weaving this on an upright loom. Beside them is a man,
evidently an overseer, watching the weavers and their work. The other
wall-painting represents a man weaving a checkered rug on a horizontal
loom. Other monuments of ancient Egypt and of Mesopotamia bear witness
that the manufacture of rugs dates a considerable time prior to 2400
B.C.
At Thebes a fresco, dating 1700-1000 B.C., represents three men weaving
at an upright loom. A small rug, discovered in that city some time
between the years 666 and 358 B.C., and now in the possession of Mr. Hay
in England, is described by Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson as follows: "This
rug is eleven inches long by nine broad. It is made like many carpets of
the present day, with woollen threads on linen string. In the centre is
the figure of a boy in white, with a goose above it, the hieroglyphic of
'child' upon a green ground, around which is a border composed of red,
white, and blue lines. The remainder is yellow, with four white figures
above and below, and one at each side, with blue outlines and red
ornaments; and the outer border is made up of red, white, and blue
lines, with a fancy device projecting from it, with a triangular summit,
which extends entirely round the edge of the rug. Its date is uncertain,
but from the child, the combination of the colors, and ornamental
border, I am inclined to think it really Egyptian, not of the Pharaonic,
but of the Greek and Roman period." Dr. Samuel Birch, who edited the
last edition of Wilkinson's work, affirms that this is so.
On the marbles of Nineveh is represented the pectoral worn by
Sardanapalus. It is an exact miniature of a Kurdish rug of modern times.
The Tree of Life, the motif of most of the Persian rug designs, is in
the centre, and the border is ornamented with rosettes and bars.
Phoenician art is intermediate between Egyptian and Assyrian. The
color most prized in the art of Phoenicia was the rare and beautiful
purple (properly crimson) dye used exclusively for the garments of
royalty. For centuries the process of making this dye was lost, and even
at the time of its highest fame it was familiar only to the maritime
Canaanites, who procured the color from an animal juice of the murex, a
shellfish. The shellfish and the dye were known to the ancients as
_conchylium_.
When Cleopatra, the famous Queen of Egypt, went to meet Cæsar for the
first time, she knew that he would not allow her to enter his presence
if recognized, and therefore she cleverly had herself carried into his
palace wrapped in a rug of the finest texture. It may well be imagined
that the unexpected disclosure of the charms of this subtle Egyptian
shared largely in bringing the great Roman general into her toils.
Besides Biblical writers, Homer, Æschylus, Plautus, Metellus Scipio,
Horace, Pliny, Lucan, Josephus, Arrian, and Athenæus all speak of rugs.
To persons interested in rugs the search for these allusions is a most
fascinating occupation.
The Egyptians bestowed the greatest care and patience upon the rugs they
wove, as upon all else of their handiwork. They spread them before the
images of their gods, and also on the ground for their sacred cattle to
lie upon. They loved Nature intensely; like true lovers, they seemed to
have reached her very heart, and they symbolized her works in their
artistic designs. Even to this day many Oriental rugs have symbolic
signs borrowed from the works of Nature.
In design and color the rugs woven to-day in the Orient are similar to
the Assyrian and Babylonian textile fabrics of 1000-607 B.C. (Fall of
Nineveh) and 538 (Fall of Babylon). At that early period these were used
for awnings and floor-coverings in the palaces of the Assyrian kings
Sargon, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Sardanapalus. The designs on the
stone slab from the palace of Koyunjik, Nineveh, and on the door-sill
from the palace at Khorsabad, are probably copied from rugs.
From Egypt and Chaldea the manufacture of rugs was carried into Assyria,
and then into Asia Minor. Ancient Egypto-Chaldean designs are
occasionally seen in modern rugs, but usually in a modified form. For a
long time the industry of rug-weaving was supreme in the countries
mentioned, but about 480 B.C. it arrived at a high degree of perfection
in Greece. Later, the art was corrupted by the Byzantine (Lower Roman)
influence. In the seventh and eighth centuries the Saracens came into
power in the Persian Empire after the fall of the Sassanian dynasty,
and in the African and Syrian provinces. The Saracens believed that all
labor tended to the glory of God; consequently, on their western
campaigns they carried rug-manufacture into Sicily, Spain, France, and
Italy; and thus it was introduced throughout Europe. It should be here
noted that the name Saracen was given by the later Romans and Greeks to
certain of the nomadic tribes on the Syrian borders of the Roman Empire.
After the introduction of Mohammedanism the name was applied to the Arab
followers of Mohammed.
From earliest times it has been the custom in the East to hang rugs over
graves. About the vault of the mosque at Hebron where the patriarchs
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob are said to be buried, rugs are hung at the
present day.
During times of grand _fêtes_ in Europe, when house decoration is done
with lavishness, people, to make their homes more attractive, drape with
beautiful rugs the balconies, the loggias, and the front walls of
buildings. The richness and color of these rugs blend harmoniously with
flags and other emblems, producing an effect of great magnificence and
splendor.
[Illustration: ORIENTAL RUGS DECORATING A BALCONY
_From a painting of the fifteenth century by Carpaccio Vittore, who was
born in Istria, 1450, and died in Venice, 1522. The original painting is
in the Correr Museum at Venice. On the balcony are several Oriental rugs
in shades of rich red and rose color._]
When we see the exquisite loom-work that has been wrought in the Orient,
we sometimes wonder how the weavers have achieved such success, for they
are destitute of what we call education, and they dwell amid the
humblest surroundings. But Nature has been their instructor, and the
rare shadings and varied designs of the rugs are excellent imitations of
the forms and hues of the natural world. The weavers have intuitively
grasped what is correct in color from the works of Nature surrounding
them, and we reap the benefit in the rich specimens of their art which
they export.
These patient toilers of the East delight in subdued colorings and
artistic designs; and without a doubt many a story is woven in with the
threads that go to form the fabric, many a song of joy, many a dirge of
woe and despair. The number of Orientals engaged in the manufacture of
rugs in the United States is increasing. It is now not an uncommon sight
to see these weavers at work before the loom in the show windows of the
rug-importing establishments of the larger cities.
The increasing use of polished hard wood and yellow pine floors and
mosaic work, even in buildings of moderate cost, is displacing the use
of cheap flooring, which could be covered satisfactorily only with
carpets or matting. This has enormously increased the demand for rugs;
and the selection of them affords a much wider range for the exercise of
personal taste and discrimination in securing an article not only of
greater artistic merit, but of greater durability.
THE LOOM AND ITS WORK
The hand loom is Oriental, the power loom Occidental. The former adds
much to the fame of the Orient. The exquisite fabrics it produces have
made it world-renowned, and although it is simple in structure, its
products show careful and finished labor. Hand looms in all Oriental
countries are similar, and are to-day almost as imperfectly developed as
when used by the ancient Egyptians. To weave their mats, the ancient
Egyptians took the coarse fibre of the papyrus and, with the help of
pegs, stretched it between two poles which were fastened in the ground.
Two bars were placed in between these poles, the threads of the warp
serving to keep them apart. The woof thread was passed through and
pressed down tightly a number of times with a bent piece of wood.
The loom now generally used in the Orient is made by fastening two poles
perpendicularly in the ground to a sufficient depth, leaving above
ground as much of each pole as equals in length the desired rug. This
framework supports two horizontal rollers, the warp threads being wound
around the upper, while the ends are fastened to the lower; at this the
weaving is begun, and on it the rug is rolled while in process of
construction. To the warp threads of fine linen or cotton the weavers
tie the tufts of worsted that form the pile. This worsted, which has
been dyed previously, hangs over their heads in balls. When a row of
knots is finished, it is pressed down to the underlying woof by a long
and heavy comb with metal teeth. Then the tufts are clipped close with
shears, to make the pile. In the finer rugs there are seldom more than
two, or at the most three, threads between every two rows of knots, but
in the coarser kinds there are more threads. In many districts every
family possesses a loom, and it is generally small enough to be carried
from place to place.
Sir George C. Birdwood has seen the web in the horizontal loom in
Western India kept stretched by being wrapped, as worked, round the body
of the weaver. In some instances the spinners make thread from the
cotton wool by using the left hand as a distaff, and the right one as a
spindle. In other cotton rugs which he has seen, the warp threads were
placed horizontally, and the loom was without treadles and reed. The
woof threads were thrown across by the weaver and brought together with
a small hand comb. The same style of loom, arranged vertically, is that
on which some of the richly figured cotton rugs from the Deccan are
woven.
In some parts of Turkey there are European factories that have adopted
some of the native methods; but as the majority of Turkish rugs are apt
to be crooked, frames that weave them straight are now imported from
Europe.
Mrs. Isabella Bird Bishop describes a tribe of people living at
Biratori, on the Island of Yezo, Japan, and bearing the name of Ainos,
whose women employ their time in weaving mats. Their loom is certainly a
most primitive arrangement. A comb-like frame, through which the threads
pass, rests on the ankles of the weaver. There is a heavy hook fastened
in the ground or floor, and to this the threads at the far end of the
web are sewed. A cord fastens the near end to the waist of the weaver,
who by spinal rigidity supplies the necessary tension. As the work
proceeds, she drags herself along nearer and nearer the hook. This is
slow work, only about a foot being accomplished in a day; as in other
countries, however, the women enjoy the neighborly chats that their work
allows; and often two or more will bring to the house of a neighbor
their simple apparatus, and, hanging the hooks to the roof or to a tree,
will weave all day.
[Illustration: TURKISH LOOM AND WEAVERS]
The power looms of modern civilization are chiefly to be found in the
United States and Great Britain, Philadelphia being the principal
American centre, and Kidderminster, Wilton, Worcester, Rochdale,
Halifax, Dewsbury, and Durham, the English centres. Brussels and
Scotland contain a number of such looms. In all Western countries
schools of art furnish most of the designs, and have done much to
improve taste. This can also be said of good colorists in their branch
of this industry.
[Illustration: A LOOM]
THE WEAVERS
Rug-weaving in the Orient is an industry that, until recent years, has
been carried on almost exclusively by women and girls. From childhood to
womanhood, and on to old age, these weavers are at work. Girls of six
years of age help their mothers, until they become experienced by long
practice. Even ladies of rank and wealth weave rugs of fine quality for
their own homes. In some districts, besides weaving for the market,
girls weave one or two rugs for their dowry; this purpose furnishes them
with enough excitement to keep them interested in their work and
ambitious to excel. Now that there is a greater demand for rugs, and not
enough women to supply the demand, men and boys have come into the
business, but generally only in places where there are large factories,
and especially in the cities. This is noticeably the case in India,
where boys from nine to fifteen years of age do much of the weaving.
There are two classes of weavers, the sedentary and the nomadic. The
former weave in their houses during the Winter, and in their courtyards
during the Summer. The nomads spend the Winter in mud villages, and in
the Summer go to the mountains with their flocks and live in tents made
of goat's hair. The manner of life of the sedentary weaver works havoc
with her constitution even in her youth; and consequently one is not
surprised at her frail appearance. In Summer she is oppressed with heat
as she sits before the frame, and in Winter she is almost frozen, for
she has to work in the open air in order to have sufficient light. Hers
is not an easy life. It would be pleasant to believe that in her toil,
which she carries on with wondrous patience and in the humblest
surroundings, the conscientious weaver finds the same inward
satisfaction that comes to the true artist elsewhere.
The duties of the male portion of the family are to tend the flocks,
shear the sheep, separate the various qualities of the wool into
bundles, dye it, and make the framework for the rug. With the extension
of the industry, a class of workers has arisen whose sole task is to
manipulate and dye the wool for use. The reason why men do not usually
weave is that the occupation, besides not being a paying one, requires
an amount of patience not within the power of men accustomed to work out
of doors. Nor is it a remunerative occupation. The reader, who is
perhaps also a prospective rug-buyer, may be interested in the following
calculation of the amount of labor bestowed upon a given piece of the
best type, the cost of the materials, and its value when completed. A
square foot of the best Persian rug is worth about ten dollars, and it
takes a single weaver twenty-three days to complete this portion. This
allows the weaver about forty-four cents per day for her wool and her
labor; but as three-fourths of this amount goes to pay for the wool,
only eleven cents per day is left for her labor. The wages of the
producer of the inferior article are somewhat better. A square foot of
an inferior rug is sold for about sixty cents, and the time required for
weaving it is but two days, thus allowing the weaver thirty cents per
day for her wool and labor. She uses inferior wool, washes but little of
it, and pays only a nominal sum for a cheap dye. The framework of her
loom costs comparatively little, as the rug it produces is from twenty
to thirty times the size of the superior rug. Thus it appears that, in
the long run, the inferior weaver is better paid than the one who
fatigues her brain with her efforts to produce a rug of the best
quality. On the other hand, the weaver of the superior fabric has
advantages which the other has not. As a general rule, she weaves to
order, and is paid for her work in advance. This prepayment is of great
importance, considering the poverty of the weaver. The situation of the
weaver of the inferior article differs in that she has to buy her wool,
dye it, finish her rug, and then watch the market for buyers.
[Illustration: VATS FOR WASHING AND DYEING WOOL--TURKEY]
The weavers live on the simplest fare; bread, cheese, and a raw onion
make an average meal. In some districts the weavers have to work in
underground huts, for the air at the surface is so dry that the threads
would lose all their elasticity out of doors. In these underground
places the weavers produce enough moisture by keeping at hand utensils
full of water.
Although the business is conducted with the manufacturer on a strictly
commercial basis, it is very difficult to induce the weavers to keep
their appointments and finish a rug at the time it is promised. In
India, for example, the weavers are very superstitious; and if a boy
weaver be taken ill, the entire force on that loom will stop until he
recover. If he die, the entire force of native weavers may be changed.
This of course causes vexatious delay, not only of days, but often of
weeks and months.
THE MATERIALS
The materials used in the manufacture of rugs cover a wide range, and
are indigenous to the place where the weavers are located. Sheep's wool,
camel's hair, mohair from the Angora goat, hair from the yak and from
the Thibetan goat, silk, cotton, linen, hemp, flax, and jute are all
used. In the Spring the raw wool is generally taken to the nearest
market, where it is cleaned, washed, and spun. The cleansing process is
very necessary, as it affects in an important degree the quality of the
material. The wool is usually washed in running water by the men, and
then sorted and cleansed a second time.
Persia, Turkey, and India all produce wool, the two former countries in
larger quantities than India, but some of the very finest wool comes
from that part of India known as Kashmir. The celebrated Turfani wool
comes from Chinese Thibet. It is very choice, and beautiful fabrics are
woven from it.
[Illustration: SOUMAK RUG
SIZE, 4.11 × 3.1
_The fine weaving of this Soumak Rug and its beautiful coloring are
especially admirable. The texture is very firm, the threads being
tightly drawn. On a field, which is a choice shade of blue, rest
geometrical forms, each one of which has a ground of terra cotta, pale
green, or soft yellow, and is ornamented with rich blue, ivory, or a
light shade of terra cotta. All are outlined with black. The hook design
is noticed in different parts of the rug, and especially in the border.
The artistic effect of this bit of weaving is most pleasing._
OWNED BY MR. WILL J. DAVIS, CHICAGO.]
The pashim is the soft downy wool growing next the body of the goat. In
color it is white, dark gray, or drab; and of this many of the finest
India rugs are woven. Large-tailed sheep are common in Kabul, Peshawar,
and other districts; these furnish wool from which many a rug is
woven. It is possible that the very sheep watched over by the shepherds
of Judea the night of our Saviour's birth were reared partly for their
wool, with a view to rug-weaving.
The camel is useful not only as a beast of burden; its hair is woven
into fabrics both fine and durable, chief of which are rugs, beautiful,
much desired, and costly; the younger the animal the more is its hair
esteemed. The natural colors harmonize readily with the furnishings in
most rooms, and the soft texture of the best ones is attractive.
The process of carding is accomplished by means of a block with vertical
pins in even rows close together. The wool is drawn through these many
times, and then spun into yarn.
THE QUALITY
The fineness of a rug depends largely upon the quality of the wool and
the number of knots to the square foot. In one yard of the best made
Persian rugs there are between twenty thousand and thirty thousand
stitches made by hand. The wool must be of fine quality, but not too
soft. It should be closely woven, and evenly cropped. A great deal
depends upon the manipulation of the wool in the rough, and careful
attention should be given to this particular.
The quality of the wool is affected by whatever circumstances affect the
well-being of the sheep, and in a marked degree by climate. Hence there
is a decided difference in the wools of various districts and sections
of a country. It is a well-known fact that the wool produced in cold
countries is soft and fine, while that of the warmer climates is, on the
other hand, harder, firmer, and more lasting. Hard wool is easier for
the weaver to handle, and the tufts can be cropped with more facility.
It is partly owing to these facts that the rugs of the cold districts
are most in demand.
[Illustration: INDIAN RUG DESIGNERS]
The fact that some rugs are so much better than others is a natural
result of the superior skill of the makers. Weavers are like other
workers, some doing perfect work, some indifferent, and others very
poor. But the quality of the rugs offered for sale in this country
depends also upon the knowledge and the conscience of the wholesale
buyer at the place of manufacture. When the buyer for an importing
establishment brings over quantities of rugs not all of which are
artistic, the question may be asked: "Why do you not always select rugs
that are beautiful?" He may reply that it is his business to get those
that will sell, and that as there is a great variety of taste among his
customers he must try to please every one; or he may say that he buys a
thousand rugs at a time, and does not see them individually. It is in
the retail shop that the final purchaser may pick and choose.
The most famous rugs of the Orient have been selected with great care by
men who have special knowledge of the subject, and they are owned by
museums and connoisseurs. Some have been brought to this country by
distinguished soldiers and statesmen, to whom they have been presented
by potentates as tokens of respect. Others have been obtained through
the fortunes of war.
THE KNOTTING
Except in the Soumak and the Khilim, which have the flat stitch, there
are only two kinds of knotting used in Oriental rugs. These knots are
called the Persian or Sinna, and the Turkish or Ghiordes.
In the Persian manner of knotting there are more knots to the square
inch than in the Turkish, and the result is a finer surface. Often the
Persian knotting is so fine that the surface of the fabric is like
velvet. The Persian knot is tied in such a manner that one end of the
pile yarn extends from every spacing that separates the warp threads. It
is made in such a way that a noose is formed, which tightens as the yarn
is pulled. Occasionally it is turned in the opposite direction, and
executed from left to right. In this case two threads of yarn are
employed, this of course making the pile twice as thick as in the other.
The Turkish or Ghiordes knot has the yarn twisted about the warp threads
in such a manner that the two raised ends of the pile alternate with
every two threads of the warp.
[Illustration: SINNA RUG
SIZE, 4.6 × 6.6
_This is a beautiful example of the very fine texture and the even
clipping that characterize the Sinna rugs. Thickly studding the dark
blue field are minute designs in blue and rose hues, with which pale
green, yellow, and a sapphire blue blend most harmoniously. All these
small designs rest in the usual diaper design, which may be traced
throughout the rug. The border is charming, with its groundwork of fine
yellow, on which are delicate tracings of light green, ivory, and blue.
The effect of light and shade upon this exquisite piece of weaving
brings out plainly the marvellous sheen which is a feature of this rug.
The innumerable small figures which appear throughout the rug, with
their blending of soft hues, present a kaleidoscopic effect._
OWNED BY MRS. EMMONS BLAINE, CHICAGO.]
Experts have spent much time and invested much capital in the endeavor
to make the rug industry as perfect as possible. Judging from the
examples of India rugs I have seen,--some with a seven-by-six knot,
others with a sixteen-by-sixteen knot,--I am convinced that the beauty,
durability, and artistic effects produced by the efforts of the
manufacturers will be appreciated more and more. From the fact that the
best-known firms in the rug business in New York, Chicago, and other
cities in the United States, and several leading firms in England, are
sponsors for the present rug industry in India, it may naturally be
inferred that it is prosecuted with skill and care.
[Illustration: PERSIAN OR SINNA KNOTTING]
[Illustration: TURKISH OR GHIORDES KNOTTING]
[Illustration: SOUMAK WEAVE]
The different stitches made are as follows: seven by eight, or fifty-six
hand-tied knots to the square inch; eight by eight, or sixty-four knots
to the square inch; ten by ten, or one hundred knots to the square inch;
twelve by twelve, or one hundred and forty-four knots to the square
inch; and sixteen by sixteen, or two hundred and fifty-six knots to the
square inch. These finer stitches are made in the very best examples
produced by the finest Persian weavers. A specimen recently shown me was
an exact reproduction of the rug owned by Prince Alexis
Lobanow-Rostowsky, in which the stitch was the sixteen by sixteen. It
was made in one of the factories in Kashmir.
The famous rug of Ardebil in the South Kensington Museum has three
hundred and eighty hand-tied knots to the square inch, or thirty-three
million in the whole fabric.
DESIGNS
The designs of Eastern rugs are often the spontaneous outcome of the
fancy of the weaver. Sometimes they are handed down from one generation
to another; in some cases young girls are taught the design by an adult,
who marks it in the sand; at other times a drawing of the rug is made on
paper, the instructor showing her pupils the arrangement of every thread
and the color to be used. When all this has been done, the pupil must
make the rug without looking at the drawing.
Persian rugs excel those of other countries in artistic design as well
as in harmonious coloring. The Persians seem to have a natural intuition
in the use and blending of different shades, and in the designs that
contain these colors they achieve the happiest results. It is really
wonderful what exquisite fabrics these people, born and reared in
ignorance and poverty, produce.
The designs in Persian rugs are generally floral; and in some districts,
especially Fars, the women weavers invent the designs, varying them
every two or three years. The Mohammedan religion does not allow any
direct representation of animal forms; consequently rugs woven under its
influence take floral, geometric, and vegetable forms. The Shiah sect
of Moslems, however, numbering about fifteen millions,--of which eight
millions are Persians,--do not regard representations of animals as
unlawful. By the industry of this sect, and that of all who disregard
the law of the Koran, animal forms are seen on some Persian rugs.
Among the good antique Persian rugs there are about thirty designs, all
having different borders. Each design is the peculiar work of a family
or tribe, and is produced continuously, from generation to generation
without noticeable change, except in compliance with the demand of a
buyer, or by a weaver who carries out some special fancy. Many buyers
select the color, design, and size, leaving their orders with an
importer or a manufacturer.
[Illustration: RUGS BEING TRANSPORTED]
In the modern Oriental rug the designs are not to be entirely depended
upon. They are apt to vary at the will of the weaver; and moreover,
Occidental designs are now sent to the Orient to be woven into rugs by
the native weavers of the Eastern country. The designs sent to India, to
be reproduced by the different European and American firms having
factories there, are almost universally strictly Oriental in character,
being copies from fine old Persian pieces, or rearrangements of Oriental
forms. When the design reaches India, it has to be re-drawn to the exact
size of the rug that is to be made. From this is copied what is
called a _talim_, which is the only direction the weavers have. This
talim, or guide, shows the weavers exactly how many knots of a color are
to be tied; and when these different colors are put together, the design
is formed. These talims are carefully kept, and as they are records of
the designs, can be reproduced at any time.
Large rugs show best in large and bold designs, for small and crowded
designs would not be artistic. Small designs are, however, preferable on
small rugs; a bold design on a small rug is inappropriate. The finer the
border of a rug of whatever size, the more beautiful and costly the rug.
An average size for a large rug is six yards by four, and for this a
bold vigorous design would be suitable.
Some designs found in rugs are here reproduced.
I. Five Forms of the Palmette.
_a._ With sharply marked outlines this palmette is a characteristic of
the Djushaghan rugs.
[Illustration: _a_]
_b._ This is a geometrical form of the palmette, frequently met with in
modern Caucasian rugs.
[Illustration: _b_]
_c._ This form of the palmette has an oblong central nucleus, surrounded
by wreaths of leaves. To the right and left lancet-shaped leaves nearly
encircle the whole. This design is most frequently seen in old Persian
rugs.
[Illustration: _c_]
_d._ In some old Persian rugs this form of the palmette with its
diagonal projections is seen. It tends toward the geometrical, although
its centre contains a small floral spray.
[Illustration: _d_]
_e._ This palmette, with its two flanking lancet-shaped leaves, is
frequently seen in modern Feraghan and Kurdistan rugs.
[Illustration: _e_]
[Illustration: II]
II. The Herati Border, or some form of it, may often be seen in Herat,
Feraghan, Khorassan, Kurdistan, and Sinna rugs.
III. The central design is formed by eight valvular or four heart-shaped
leaves. This form is often seen in Kirmanshah and Shiraz, and sometimes
in Caucasian rugs.
[Illustration: III]
IV. The Running Hook design found in the Daghestan, Shirvan, and Soumak
rugs.
[Illustration: IV]
V. Pomegranate. The fruit is often depicted on ancient Assyrian and
Egyptian sculptures. It had a religious significance in connection with
several Oriental cults and was early introduced into rug designs.
[Illustration: V]
VI. A palm leaf with regular contour, its centre containing a small
floral design. This form of design is found in more or less detail in
the rugs of Persia and India.
[Illustration: VI]
VII. A palm leaf formed by a floral branch and without distinct outline.
[Illustration: VII]
VIII. Cloud bands, seen in Chinese and old Ghiordes rugs.
IX. A lozenge surrounded by the Hook design. This is found in rugs made
by nomadic tribes of Asia.
[Illustration: VIII]
[Illustration: IX]
[Illustration: X]
X. A continued wave-like design with rosettes attached. At intervals a
delicate tendril effect is interposed on either side of the wave-line.
[Illustration: XI]
XI. A continued wave-like design interrupted by a two-cleft figure.
[Illustration: XII]
XII. A rosette, the tips of its leaves bending backward. The rosette is
often met with in old Khorassan, Herat, Feraghan, and other Persian
rugs.
[Illustration: XIII]
XIII. Reciprocal trefoil, or spade design. Found as a border design in
many of the Caucasian and some Persian rugs, especially the Saraband.
[Illustration: XIV]
XIV. The central design holds a rosette, to which are joined four
blossoms resting in valvular calyxes, the complete design forming a
cross.
[Illustration: XV]
XV. Four designs characteristic of the Caucasian rug.
[Illustration: XVI]
XVI. The Fylfot is in the form of a Greek cross with each arm continuing
at right angles. It is also known as the Swastika, and is the symbol of
good fortune. It has been a favorite design in the rugs of Greece, and
of the Orient, while it predominates in the Navajo rugs of the United
States.
XVII. The Guli Hinnai is a decorative floral design found at its best in
the old rugs of Feraghan. It is copied from the flowers which grow in
small clusters on the henna-plant, from which it derives its name.
[Illustration: XVII]
XVIII. The Lotus is the water lily of Egypt. In various forms it is
found in antique rugs of Persia.
[Illustration: XVIII]
XIX. The Medallion, in both floral and geometrical designs, is seen in
many rugs of all rug-weaving countries.
[Illustration: XIX]
There are many more designs which by careful investigation can be found.
Among others the Arabesque, Chinese fret, Circle, Comb, various forms of
the Cross, Mina Khani, Octagon, the S form, Scroll, Serrated leaves,
Shah Abbas, the Star,--six or eight pointed,--the Tarantula, Triangle,
the Y form, and the Zigzag.
THE DYES
When doing their best work, Oriental weavers use the softest of
permanent dyes. The result obtained is in every case a thing of beauty
and utility. The aniline dyes are, of course, not to be compared to the
vegetable, although the best of them are not to be utterly condemned.
The poorest aniline dye eats into the rug, and the color fades.
[Illustration: WOOL DRYING AFTER DYEING]
Madder ranks high among those plants which yield a permanent dye. It
belongs to the genus _Rubia_; the root employed is that of the _Rubia
tinctorum_. This is largely cultivated in certain districts of India,
but the best comes from near Smyrna, and from other parts of Asiatic
Turkey. The plant grows wild throughout a large section of Central Asia
and Russia. With both the European and the Indian madders the roots of
the plants are the only parts that yield the dye. In the roots three
coloring matters are obtained: alizarin and purpurin, which are both
red, and xanthin, which is yellow. Cochineal was introduced for dyeing
purposes in 1856. It is the product of an insect called _Coccus cacti_,
which lives on a species of cactus. Yellow is often produced from
Persian berries, turmeric, saffron, and sumac.
Tyrian purple dye was greatly prized by the Phoenicians. As stated
above, it was obtained from a shellfish; but the secret was known only
to the maritime Canaanites. The art of producing this dye has been lost,
although some aver that in recent years it has been re-discovered.
Kermes, red in color, is one of the oldest of all dyes. It was known in
Syria, 1200 B.C. It is not so brilliant as cochineal, but it is much
more durable. Plutarch is authority for the statement that after one
hundred and ninety years stuffs dyed with kermes retained their original
color. The dye is the product of the bodies of females of the species of
coccus which infest certain trees along the Mediterranean coasts. When
the Romans conquered Spain, a part of the tribute demanded was paid with
these little bodies.
Greens are obtained from various sources. The Chinese green is a dye
obtained from _Rhamnus chlorophorus_ and _Rhamnus utilis_, a genus of
shrubs. The fruit of several buckthorns, or the Persian berries, as they
are generally called by dyers, also give greens and brilliant yellows.
Most of the greens, however, are produced by the combination of indigo
with yellow.
Indigo, mentioned by Pliny as Indicum, yields the deep blue dye so much
prized by the Romans. Arrian speaks of indigo, and says that it was
exported from Barbarike, on the Indus, into Egypt. This plant is grown
in India, China, North and South America, Mexico, Central America,
Africa, Japan, Madagascar, and Jamaica. When the Indian indigo plant,
_Indigofera tinctoria_, is in flower, it contains the largest quantity
of coloring matter. The beautiful vegetable and animal dyes which were
compounded with consummate skill are now largely supplanted by the
chemical dyes which are easily obtained. But in years to come the
commercialism of the present will probably give way to the restoration
of the splendid dyeing of the past.
ORIENTAL COLORS
Among Orientals a good deal of significance has attached, from the
earliest days, to color. In Babylon scarlet was the symbol of fire, blue
of air, and purple of water. Tyrian purple was an exquisite and rare
shade of crimson. Many allusions are made to it by classical writers.
The principal colors of the ancient Egyptians were red, yellow, and
blue. Black was the symbol of error. White signified a holy life,
purity, innocence of soul. The priests of Zeus and of Osiris were robed
in white. Red was the symbol of zeal for the faith. Yellow was supposed
to bring evil and sorrow. Blue was the symbol of truth. Black and white
were often used to outline other colors.
The Persians, unlike most other Orientals, are not fond of bright
colors. They are apt to avoid the light shades of red and green as being
too showy, and further, as being liable to fade. Greens and yellows in
dark shades they treat with more favor. They consider black and indigo
as the symbols of sorrow; rose is the symbol of Divine Wisdom; green
represents initiation into the knowledge of the Most High.
Among the Chinese, yellow is the symbol of royalty. The Emperor of
China and his sons may wear yellow robes; their descendants wear yellow
sashes and have yellow bridles for their horses. Red is the symbol of
truth, virtue, and sincerity. It is the color of the highest degree of
official rank. White is the symbol of mourning; black represents vice
and depravity.
In Turkey, green is the most sacred color; and for that reason a true
follower of Mahomet will not permit it to be used in his rugs, for fear
it may be profaned by being stepped upon. Thirty-five or forty years ago
no Christian was allowed to wear even a vestige of green anywhere upon
him, while in Turkey; but this law is not now so rigidly enforced. If
the Prophet or any of his family wear this color, no objection is
raised, as he and they are considered holy, and thus exempt from the
penalty. White is the color permitted to a student or a teacher of the
law. To the Mohammedans of India and Persia, as to the Chinese, white is
the emblem of mourning. In India, orange signifies devotion or pious
resignation, and blue means ill-luck to the Hindoo.
Red was the favorite color of the Gauls, purple of the Romans, and
saffron of the Greeks.
II
RUG-WEAVING IN EGYPT, PERSIA, AND TURKEY
RUG-WEAVING IN EGYPT
The supply of skins having been found inadequate to the gratification of
their desire for comfort, the ancient Egyptians gradually developed the
art of making mats from papyrus, a plant as important to them as any of
our trees, fibrous grasses, or hemp are to us. While at work on the
manufacture of these mats, the weavers used to squat on the ground. They
became skilful, both in constructing the fabric and arranging the
colors; the latter were quite bright and effective, being chiefly red,
blue, yellow, and green, with black and white to define.
Egyptians used rugs in the decoration of their rooms, hanging them on
walls and also suspending them between the pillars. But as the glory of
Egypt departed, her skill in rug-making also declined; and the Egyptian
rugs of the present day are of a coarse quality, being made in private
houses under the primitive conditions that existed thousands of years
ago. The last manufactory in working order was at Boulak, a suburb of
Cairo, but it has been closed for several years. A great many rugs,
however, are imported into Egypt, the majority being from Persia,
Turkey, and India. Cairo is still one of the leading emporiums for the
sale to tourists of rugs of Eastern make.
PERSIAN RUGS
In Persia the art of rug-making has attained a very high degree of
excellence, having been practised there during many centuries; indeed,
the exact period when this industry was introduced into that country is
not known. Tradition has it that long before the days of Alexander the
Great, rugs were woven at Shuster, then the capital; and being a luxury,
they were woven solely for kings' palaces, and on the finest gold warp.