fields with a stone fence, instead of wooden pales. The plenty of
stones which are to be got here, render the labour very trifling.
Here are abundance of beech trees in the woods, and they now had ripe
seeds. The people in Canada collect them in autumn, dry them, and keep
them till winter, when they eat them, instead of walnuts and hazel
nuts; and I am told they taste very well.
There is a salt spring, as the priest of this place informed me, seven
French miles from hence, near the river d’Assomption; of which during
the war, they have made a fine white salt. The water is said to be very
briny.
Some kinds of fruit-trees succeed very well near Montreal, and I had
here an opportunity of seeing some very fine pears and apples of
various sorts. Near Quebec the pear-trees will not succeed, because the
winter is too severe for them; and sometimes they are killed by the
frost in the neighbourhood of Montreal. Plum-trees of several sorts
were first brought over from France, succeed very well, and withstand
the rigours of winter. Three varieties of America walnut-trees grow in
the woods; but the walnut-trees brought over from France die almost
every year down to the very root, bringing forth new shoots in spring.
Peach-trees cannot well agree with this climate; a few bear the cold,
but, for greater safety, they are obliged to put straw round them.
Chesnut-trees, mulberry-trees, and the like, have never yet been
planted in Canada.
The whole cultivated part of Canada has been given away by the king to
the clergy, and some noblemen; but all the uncultivated parts belong to
him, as likewise the place on which Quebec and Trois Rivieres are
built. The ground on which the town of Montreal is built, together with
the whole isle of that name, belongs to the priests of the order of St.
Sulpicius who live at Montreal. They have given the land in tenure to
farmers and others who were willing to settle on it, in so much that
they have more upon their hands at present. The first settlers paid a
trifling rent for their land; for frequently the whole lease for a
piece of ground, three arpens broad and thirty long, consists in a
couple of chicken; and some pay twenty, thirty, or forty sols for a
piece of land of the same size. But those who came later, must pay near
two ecus (crowns) for such a piece of land, and thus the land-rent is
very unequal throughout the country. The revenues of the bishop of
Canada do not arise from any landed property. The churches are built at
the expence of the congregations. The inhabitants of Canada do not yet
pay any taxes to the king; and he has no other revenues from it, than
those which arise from the custom-house.
The priests of Montreal have a mill here, where they take the fourth
part of all that is ground. However the miller receives a third part of
this share. In other places he gets the half of it. The priests
sometimes lease the mill for a certain sum. Besides them nobody is
allowed to erect a mill on the isle of Montreal, they having reserved
that right to themselves. In the agreement drawn up between the priests
and the inhabitants of the isle, the latter are obliged to get all
their corn ground in the mills of the former.
They boil a good deal of sugar in Canada of the juice running out of
the incisions in the sugar-maple, the red maple, and the sugar-birch;
but that of the first tree is most commonly made use of. The way of
preparing it has been more minutely described by me, in the Memoirs of
the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences [119].
September the 26th. Early this morning I returned to Montreal. Every
thing began now to look like autumn. The leaves of the trees were pale
or reddish, and most of the plants had lost their flowers. Those which
still preserved them were the following [120]:
Several sorts of asters, both blue and white.
Golden rods of various kinds.
Common milfoil.
Common self-heal.
The crisped thistle.
The biennial oenothera.
The rough-leaved sun-flower, with tri-foliated leaves.
The Canada violet.
A species of gentian.
Wild vines are abundant in the woods hereabouts, climbing up very high
trees.
I have made enquiry among the French, who travel far into the country,
concerning the food of the Indians. Those who live far north, I am
told, cannot plant any thing, on account of the great degree of cold.
They have, therefore, no bread, and do not live on vegetables; flesh
and fish is their only food, and chiefly the flesh of beavers, bears,
rein-deer, elks, hares, and several kinds of birds. Those Indians who
live far southward, eat the following things. Of vegetables they plant
maize, wild kidney beans [121] of several kinds, pumpions of different
sorts, squashes, a kind of gourds, watermelons and melons [122]. All
these plants have been cultivated by the Indians, long before the
arrival of the Europeans. They likewise eat various fruits which grow
in their woods. Fish and flesh make a very great part of their food.
And they chiefly like the flesh of wild cattle, roe-bucks, stags,
bears, beavers, and some other quadrupeds. Among their dainty dishes,
they reckon the water-taregrass [123], which the French call folle
avoine, and which grows in plenty in their lakes, in stagnant waters,
and sometimes in rivers which flow slowly. They gather its seeds in
October, and prepare them in different ways, and chiefly as groats,
which taste almost as well as rice. They make likewise many a delicious
meal of the several kinds of walnuts, chesnuts, mulberries, acimine
[124], chinquapins [125], hazel-nuts, peaches, wild prunes, grapes,
whortle-berries of several sorts, various kinds of medlars,
black-berries, and other fruit and roots. But the species of corn so
common in what is called the old world, were entirely unknown here
before the arrival of the Europeans; nor do the Indians at present ever
attempt to cultivate them, though they see the use which the Europeans
make of the culture of them, and though they are fond of eating the
dishes which are prepared of them.
September the 27th. Beavers are abundant all over North-America, and
they are one of the chief articles of the trade in Canada. The Indians
live upon their flesh during a great part of the year. It is certain
that these animals multiply very fast; but it is no less so, that vast
numbers of them are annually killed, and that the Indians are obliged
at present to undertake distant journies, in order to catch or shoot
them. Their decreasing in number is very easily accounted for; because
the Indians, before the arrival of the Europeans, only caught as many
as they found necessary to clothe themselves with, there being then no
trade with the skins. At present a number of ships go annually to
Europe, laden chiefly with beavers skins; the English and French
endeavour to outdo each other, by paying the Indians well for them, and
this encourages the latter to extirpate these animals. All the people
in Canada told me, that when they were young, all the rivers in the
neighbourhood of Montreal, the river St. Lawrence not excepted, were
full of beavers and their dykes; but at present they are so far
extirpated, that one is obliged to go several miles up the country
before one can meet with one. I have already remarked above, that the
beaver skins from the north, are better than those from the south.
Beaver-flesh is eaten not only by the Indians, but likewise by the
Europeans, and especially the French, on their fasting days; for his
holiness, in his system, has ranged the beaver among the fish. The
flesh is reckoned best, if the beaver has lived upon vegetables, such
as the asp, and the beaver-tree [126]; but when he has eaten fish, it
does not taste well, To-day I tasted this flesh boiled, for the first
time; and though every body present, besides myself, thought it a
delicious dish, yet I could not agree with them. I think it is eatable,
but has nothing delicious. It looks black when boiled, and has a
peculiar taste. In order to prepare it well, it must be boiled in
several waters from morning till noon, that it may lose the bad taste
it has. The tail is likewise eaten, after it has been boiled in the
same manner, and roasted afterwards; but it consists of fat only,
though they would not call it so; and cannot be swallowed by one who is
not used to eat it.
Much has already been written concerning the dykes, or houses of the
beavers; it is therefore unnecessary to repeat it. Sometimes, though
but seldom, they catch beavers with white hair.
Wine is almost the only liquor which people above the vulgar are used
to drink. They make a kind of spruce beer of the top of the white fir
[127], which they drink in summer; but the use of it is not general;
and it is seldom drank by people of quality. Thus great sums go
annually out of the country for wine; as they have no vines here, of
which they could make a liquor that is fit to be drank. The common
people drink water; for it is not yet customary here to brew beer of
malt; and there are no orchards large enough to supply the people with
apples for making cyder. Some of the people of rank, who possess large
orchards, sometimes, out of curiosity, get a small quantity of cyder
made. The great people here, who are used from their youth to drink
nothing but wine, are greatly at a loss in time of war; when all the
ships which brought wine are intercepted by the English privateers.
Towards the end of the last war, they gave two hundred and fifty
Francs, and even one hundred Ecus, for a barrique, or hogshead, of
wine.
The present price of several things, I have been told by some of the
greatest merchants here, is as follows. A middling horse costs forty
Francs [128] and upwards; a good horse is valued at an hundred Francs,
or more. A cow is now sold for fifty Francs; but people can remember
the time when they were sold for ten Ecus [129]. A sheep costs five or
six livres at present; but last year, when every thing was dear, it
cost eight or ten Francs. A hog of one year old, and two hundred, or an
hundred and fifty pound weight, is sold at fifteen Francs. M. Couagne,
the merchant, told me, that he had seen a hog of four hundred weight
among the Indians. A chicken is sold for ten or twelve Sols [130]; and
a turkey for twenty sols. A Minot [131] of wheat sold for an Ecu last
year; but at present it cost forty Sols. Maize is always of the same
price with wheat, because here is but little of it; and it is all made
use of by those who go to trade with the Indians. A Minot of oats costs
sometimes from fifteen to twenty Sols; but of late years it has been
sold for twenty-six, or thirty Sols. Pease bear always the same price
with wheat. A pound of butter costs commonly about eight or ten Sols;
but last year it rose up to sixteen Sols. A dozen of eggs used to cost
but three Sols; however, now are sold for five. They make no cheese at
Montreal; nor is there any to be had, except what is got from abroad. A
water-melon generally costs five or six Sols; but if of a large size,
from fifteen to twenty.
There are as yet no manufactures established in Canada; probably,
because France will not lose the advantage of selling off its own goods
here. However, both the inhabitants of Canada, and the Indians, are
very ill off for want of them, in times of war.
Those persons who want to be married, must have the consent of their
parents. However, the judge may give them leave to marry, if the
parents oppose their union, without any valid reason. Likewise, if the
man be thirty years of age, and the woman twenty-six, they may marry,
without farther waiting for their parents consent.
September the 29th. This afternoon I went out of town, to the
south-west part of the isle, in order to view the country, and the
œconomy of the people, and to collect several seeds. Just before the
town are some fine fields, which were formerly cultivated, but now
serve as pastures. To the north-west appears the high mountain, which
lies westward of Montreal, and is very fertile, and covered with fields
and gardens from the bottom to the summit. On the south-east side is
the river St. Lawrence, which is very broad here; and on its sides are
extensive corn-fields and meadows, and fine houses of stone, which look
white at a distance. At a great distance south-eastward, appear the two
high mountains near fort Chamblais, and some others near lake
Champlain, raising their tops above the woods. All the fields
hereabouts are filled with stones of different sizes; and among them,
there is now and then a black lime-stone. About a French mile from the
town, the high road goes along the river, which is on the left-hand;
and on the right-hand all the country is cultivated and inhabited. The
farm-houses are three, four, or five arpens distant from each other.
The hills near the river are generally high and pretty steep; they
consist of earth; and the fields below them are filled with pieces of
rock-stone, and of black lime-slate. About two French miles from
Montreal, the river runs very rapidly, and is full of stones; in some
places there are some waves. However, those who go in boats into the
southern parts of Canada, are obliged to work through such places.
Most of the farm-houses in this neighbourhood are of stone, partly of
the black lime-stone, and partly of other stones in the neighbourhood.
The roof is made of shingles or of straw. The gable is always very high
and steep. Other buildings, such as barns and stables, are of wood.
Wild-geese and ducks, began now to migrate in great flocks to the
southern countries.
October the 2d. The two preceding days, and this, I employed chiefly in
collecting seeds.
The last night’s frost had caused a great alteration in several trees.
Walnut-trees of all sorts flied their leaves in plenty now. The flowers
of a kind of nettle [132] were all entirely killed by the frost. The
leaves of the American lime-tree were likewise damaged. In the
kitchen-gardens the leaves of the melons were all killed by the frost.
However, the beech, oak, and birch, did not seem to have suffered at
all. The fields were all covered with a hoar-frost. The ice in the
pools of water was a geometrical line and a half in thickness.
The biennial oenothera [133] grows in abundance on open woody hills,
and fallow fields. An old Frenchman, who accompanied me as I was
collecting its seeds, could not sufficiently praise its property of
healing wounds. The leaves of the plant must be crushed, and then laid
on the wound.
Sœurs de Congregation are a kind of religious women, different from
nuns. They do not live in a convent, but have houses both in the town
and country. They go where they please, and are even allowed to marry,
if an opportunity offers; but this, I am told, happens very seldom. In
many places in the country, there are two or more of them: they have
their house commonly near a church, and generally the parsonage house
is on the other side of the church. Their business is to instruct young
girls in the Christian religion, to teach them reading, writing,
needle-work, and other female accomplishments. People of fortune board
their daughters with them for some time. They have their boarding,
lodging, beds, instruction, and whatever else they want, upon very
reasonable terms. The house where the whole community of these ladies
live, and from whence they are sent out into the country, is at
Montreal. A lady that wants to become incorporated among them, must pay
a considerable sum of money towards the common stock; and some people
reckon it to be four thousand livres. If a person be once received, she
is sure of a subsistence during her life-time.
La Chine is a fine village, three French miles to the south-east of
Montreal, but on the same isle, close to the river St. Lawrence. The
farm-houses ly along the river-side, about four or five arpens from
each other. Here is a fine church of stone, with a small steeple; and
the whole place has a very agreeable situation. Its name is said to
have had the following origin. As the unfortunate M. Salée was here,
who was afterwards murdered by his own countrymen further up in the
country, he was very intent upon discovering a shorter road to China,
by means of the river St. Lawrence. He talked of nothing at that time
but his new short way to China. But as his project of undertaking this
journey, in order to make this discovery, was stopped by an accident
which happened to him here, and he did not that time come any nearer
China, this place got its name, as it were, by way of joke.
This evening I returned to Montreal.
October the 5th. The governor-general at Quebec is, as I have already
mentioned before, the chief commander in Canada. Next to him is the
intendant at Quebec; then follows the governor of Montreal, and after
him the governor of Trois Rivieres. The intendant has the greatest
power next to the governor-general; he pays all the money of
government, and is president of the board of finances, and of the court
of justice in this country. He is, however, under the governor-general;
for if he refuses to do any thing to which he seems obliged by his
office, the governor-general can give him orders to do it, which he
must obey. He is allowed, however, to appeal to the government in
France. In each of the capital towns, the governor is the highest
person, then the lieutenant-general, next to him a major, and after him
the captains. The governor-general gives the first orders in all
matters of consequence. When he comes to Trois Rivieres and Montreal,
the power of the governor ceases, because he always commands where he
is. The governor-general commonly goes to Montreal once every year, and
mostly in winter; and during his absence from Quebec, the
lieutenant-general commands there. When the governor-general dies, or
goes to France, before a new one is come in his stead, the governor of
Montreal goes to Quebec to command in the mean while, leaving the major
to command at Montreal.
One or two of the king’s ships are annually sent from France to Canada,
carrying recruits to supply the places of those soldiers, who either
died in the service, or have got leave to settle in the country, and
turn farmers, or to return to France. Almost every year they send a
hundred, or a hundred and fifty people over in this manner. With these
people they likewise send over a great number of persons, who have been
found guilty of smuggling in France. They were formerly condemned to
the gallies, but at present they send them to the colonies, where they
are free as soon as they arrive, and can choose what manner of life
they please, but are never allowed to go out of the country, without
the king’s special licence. The king’s ships likewise bring a great
quantity of merchandizes which the king has bought, in order to be
distributed among the Indians on certain occasions. The inhabitants of
Canada pay very little to the king. In the year 1748, a beginning was,
however, made, by laying a duty of three per cent on all the French
goods imported by the merchants of Canada. A regulation was likewise
made at that time, that all the furs and skins exported to France from
hence, should pay a certain duty; but what is carried to the colonies
pays nothing. The merchants of all parts of France and its colonies,
are allowed to send ships with goods to this place; and the Quebec
merchants are at liberty likewise to send their goods to any place in
France, and its colonies. But the merchants at Quebec have but few
ships, because the sailors wages are very high. The towns in France
which chiefly trade with Canada, are Rochelle and Bourdeaux; next to
them are Marseilles, Nantes, Havre de Grace, St. Malo, and others. The
king’s ships which bring goods to this country, come either from Brest
or from Rochefort. The merchants at Quebec send flour, wheat, pease,
wooden utensils, &c. on their own bottoms, to the French possessions in
the West-Indies. The walls round Montreal were built in 1738, at the
king’s expence, on condition the inhabitants should, little by little,
pay off the cost to the king. The town at present pays annually 6000
livres for them to government, of which 2000 are given by the seminary
of priests. At Quebec the walls have likewise been built at the king’s
expence, but he did not redemand the expence of the inhabitants,
because they had already the duty upon goods to pay as above mentioned.
The beaver trade belongs solely to the Indian company in France, and
nobody is allowed to carry it on here, besides the people appointed by
that company. Every other fur trade is open to every body. There are
several places among the Indians far in the country, where the French
have stores of their goods; and these places they call les postes. The
king has no other fortresses in Canada than Quebec, Fort Chamblais,
Fort St. Jean, Fort St. Frederic, or Crownpoint, Montreal, Frontenac,
and Niagara. All other places belong to private persons. The king keeps
the Niagara trade all to himself. Every one who intends to go to trade
with the Indians must have a licence from the governor-general, for
which he must pay a sum according as the place he is going to is more
or less advantageous for trade. A merchant who sends out a boat laden
with all sorts of goods, and four or five persons with it, is obliged
to give five or six hundred livres for the permission; and there are
places for which they give a thousand livres. Sometimes one cannot buy
the licence to go to a certain trading place, because the
governor-general has granted, or intends to grant it to some
acquaintance or relation of his. The money arising from the granting of
licences, belongs to the governor-general; but it is customary to give
half of it to the poor: whether this is always strictly kept to or not,
I shall not pretend to determine.
END OF THE THIRD VOLUME.
NOTES
[1] De verdronkene landen.
[2] It seems Mr. Kalm has forgotten his own assertions in the first
volume. Dr. Colden, Dr. Franklin, and Mr. Bartram, have been the great
promoters and investigators of nature in this country; and how would
the inhabitants of Old England have gotten the fine collections of
North-American trees, shrubs, and plants, which grow at present almost
in every garden, and are as if it were naturalized in Old England, had
they not been assisted by their friends, and by the curious in
North-America. One need only cast an eye on Dr. Linnæus’s new edition
of his Systema, and the repeated mention of Dr. Garden, in order to be
convinced that the English in America have contributed a greater share
towards promoting natural history, than any nation under heaven, and
certainly more than the French, though their learned men are often
handsomely pensioned by their great Monarque: on the other hand the
English study that branch of knowledge, from the sole motive of its
utility, and the pleasure it affords to a thinking being, without any
of those mercenary views, held forth to the learned of other countries.
And as to the other parts of literature, the English in America are
undoubtedly superior to the French in Canada, witness the many useful
institutions, colleges, and schools founded in the English colonies in
North-America, and so many very considerable libraries now erecting in
this country, which contain such a choice of useful and curious books,
as were very little known in Canada, before it fell into the hands of
the English; not to mention the productions of original genius written
by Americans born. F.
[3] See Vol. I. p. 364.
[4] The country of the Illinois is on the river Ohio, near the place
where the English have found some bones, supposed to belong to
elephants. See Vol. I. p. 135. in the note.
[5] In France the young blanched leaves, which scarce peep out of
molehills, and have yet a yellow colour, are universally eaten as a
sallad, under the name of Pisenlit. F.
[6] See Vol. II.
[7] A sol in France is about the value of one half penny sterling.
[8] An Arpent in France contains 100 French perches, and each of those
22 French feet; then the French foot being to the English as 1440 to
1352, an arpent is about 2346 English feet and 8 inches long. See
Ordonnances de Louis XIV. sur le fait des Eaux & Forêts. Paris, 1687.
p. 112. F.