On account of various principles of the Roman law, Christians were always
liable to severe penalties, and parts of the Church occasionally suffered
fearfully. But it was only in exceptional cases and sporadically that the
laws were enforced. There was, accordingly, no prolonged and systematic
effort made to put down Christianity everywhere until the reign of Decius
(249-251). The renewed interest in heathen religions and the revived
patriotism in some circles occasioned in 248 by the celebration of the
thousandth anniversary of the founding of Rome may have contributed to a
renewal of hostilities against the Church. Decius undertook the military
defence of the frontier. His colleague, Valerian, had charge of the
internal affairs of the Empire and was the author of the measures against
the Christians. Because the Church included many who had embraced the
faith in the long period when the Church rarely felt the severity of the
laws, many were unable to endure the persecution, and so apostatized or
“fell.” The persecution continued only for a short time in full intensity,
but it was not abandoned for a number of years. It became violent once
more when Valerian became Emperor (253-260). One result of the
persecutions was the rise of serious disputes, and even schisms, from
differences regarding the administration of discipline by the bishops. In
the case of the Novatians at Rome, a dissenting Church which spread
rapidly over the Empire came into existence and lasted for more than two
centuries.
§ 45. The Decian-Valerian Persecution
The first persecution which may fairly be said to have been general in
purpose and effect was that falling in the reigns of Decius (249-251) and
Valerian (253-260). Of the course of the persecution we have information
bearing directly upon Carthage, Alexandria, and Asia Minor. But it
probably was felt very generally throughout the Church.
Additional source material: Cyprian, _De Lapsis_, Epp. 14, 22, 43;
Eusebius, _Hist. Ec._, VI, 39-45, VII, 11, 15, 30: for original
texts see Preuschen, _Analecta_, I, §§ 16, 17; also R. Knopf,
_Ausgewählte Märtyreracten_ (of these the most reliable are the
martyrdom of Pionius and of Cyprian).
(_a_) Origen, _Contra Celsum_, III, 15. (MSG, 11:937.)
Origen, writing about 248, observes the probable approach of a
period of persecution for the Church.
That it is not the fear of external enemies which strengthens our union is
plain from the fact that this cause, by God’s will, has already ceased for
a considerable time. And it is probable that the secure existence, so far
as this life is concerned, which is enjoyed by believers at present will
come to an end, since those who in every way calumniate the Word [_i.e._,
Christianity] are again attributing the frequency of rebellion to the
multitude of believers and to their not being persecuted by the
authorities, as in former times.
(_b_) Lactantius, _De Mortibus Persecutorum_, 3, 4. (MSL, 7:200.)
Lucius Cælius Firminianus Lactantius was of African birth. Having
obtained some local fame as a teacher of rhetoric, he was
appointed by Diocletian professor of that subject in his new
capital of Nicomedia. This position Lactantius lost during the
Diocletian persecution. He was afterward tutor of Crispus, the son
of Constantine. His work _On the Death of the Persecutors_ is
written in a bitter spirit, but excellent style. Although in some
circles it has been customary to impeach the veracity of
Lactantius, no intentional departure from historical truthfulness,
apart from rhetorical coloring, which was inevitable, has been
proved against him. Of late there has been some doubt as to the
authorship of _De Mortibus Persecutorum_.
Ch. 3. … This long peace, however, was afterward interrupted.
Ch. 4. For after many years there appeared in the world an accursed wild
beast, Decius by name, who should afflict the Church. And who but a bad
man would persecute righteousness? As if for this end he had been raised
up to sovereign eminence, he began at once to rage against God, and at
once to fall. For having undertaken an expedition against the Carpi, who
had then occupied Dacia and Mœsia, he was suddenly surrounded by the
barbarians, and slain, together with a great part of his army; nor could
he be honored with the rights of sepulture, but, stripped and naked, he
lay as food for wild beasts and birds, as became the enemy of God.
(_c_) Eusebius, _Hist. Ec._, VI, 39. (MSG, 20:660.)
The Decian persecution and the sufferings of Origen.
Decius succeeded Philip, who had reigned seven years. On account of his
hatred of Philip, Decius commenced a persecution of the churches, in which
Fabianus suffered martyrdom at Rome, and Cornelius succeeded him in the
episcopate. In Palestine, Alexander, bishop of the church of Jerusalem,
was brought again on Christ’s account before the governor’s judgment seat
in Cæsarea, and having acquitted himself nobly in a second confession, was
cast into prison, crowned with the hoary locks of venerable age. And after
his honorable and illustrious confession at the tribunal of the governor,
he fell asleep in prison, and Mazabanes became his successor in the
bishopric of Jerusalem. Babylas in Antioch having, like Alexander, passed
away in prison after his confession, Fabius presided over that church.
But how many and how great things came upon Origen in the persecution, and
what was their final result—as the evil demon marshalled all his forces
and fought against the man with his utmost craft and power, assaulting him
beyond all others against whom he contended at that time; and what and how
many things the man endured for the word of Christ—bonds and bodily
tortures and torments under the iron collar and in the dungeon; and how
for many days with his feet stretched four spaces of the stocks he bore
patiently the threats of fire and whatever other things were inflicted by
his enemies; and how his sufferings terminated, as his judge strove
eagerly with all his might not to end his life; and what words he left
after these things full of comfort to those needing aid, a great many of
his epistles show with truth and accuracy.
(_d_) Cyprian, _De Lapsis_, 8-10. (MSL, 4:486.)
The many cases of apostasy in the Decian persecution shocked the
Church inexpressibly. In peace discipline had been relaxed and
Christian zeal had grown weak. The same phenomena appeared in the
next great persecution, under Diocletian, after a long period of
peace. _De Lapsis_ was written in the spring of 251, just after
the end of the severity of the Decian persecution and Cyprian’s
return to Carthage. Text in part in Kirch, nn. 227 _ff._
Ch. 8. From some, alas, all these things have fallen away, and have passed
from memory. They indeed did not even wait, that, having been apprehended,
they should go up, or, having been interrogated, they might deny. Many
were conquered before the battle, prostrated without an attack. Nor did
they even leave it to be said for them that they seemed to sacrifice to
idols unwillingly. They ran to the forum of their own accord; freely they
hastened to death, as if they had formerly wished it, as if they would
embrace an opportunity now given which they had always desired. How many
were put off by the magistrates at that time, when evening was coming on!
How many even asked that their destruction might not be delayed! What
violence can such a one plead, how can he purge his crime, when it was he
himself who rather used force that he might perish? When they came
voluntarily to the capitol—when they freely approached to the obedience of
the terrible wickedness—did not their tread falter, did not their sight
darken, their hearts tremble, their arms fall helplessly down, their
senses become dull, their tongues cleave to their mouths, their speech
fail? Could the servant of God stand there, he who had already renounced
the devil and the world, and speak and renounce Christ? Was not that
altar, whither he drew near to die, to him a funeral pile? Ought he not to
shudder at, and flee from, the altar of the devil, which he had seen to
smoke and to be redolent of a foul stench, as it were, a funeral and
sepulchre of his life? Why bring with you, O wretched man, a sacrifice?
Why immolate a victim? You yourself have come to the altar an offering,
yourself a victim; there you have immolated your salvation, your hope;
there you have burned up your faith in those deadly fires.
Ch. 9. But to many their own destruction was not sufficient. With mutual
exhortations the people were urged to their ruin; death was pledged by
turns in the deadly cup. And that nothing might be wanting to aggravate
the crime, infants, also, in the arms of their parents, being either
carried or conducted, lost, while yet little ones, what in the very
beginning of their nativity they had gained. Will not they, when the day
of judgment comes, say: “We have done nothing; nor have we forsaken the
Lord’s bread and cup to hasten freely to a profane contract.…”
Ch. 10. Nor is there, alas, any just and weighty reason which excuses such
a crime. One’s country was to be left, and loss of one’s estate was to be
suffered. Yet to whom that is born and dies is there not a necessity at
some time to leave his country and to suffer loss of his estate? But let
not Christ be forsaken, so that the loss of salvation and of an eternal
home should be feared.
(_e_) Cyprian, _De Lapsis_, 28. (MSL, 4:501.)
Those who did not actually sacrifice in the tests that were
applied to Christians, but by bribery had procured certificates
that they had sacrificed, were known as _libellatici_. It was to
the credit of the Christian moral feeling that this subterfuge was
not admitted.
Nor let those persons flatter themselves that they need repent the less
who, although they have not polluted their hands with abominable
sacrifices, yet have defiled their consciences with certificates. That
profession of one who denies is the testimony of a Christian disowning
what he has been. He says he has done what another has actually committed,
and although it is written, “Ye cannot serve two masters” [Matt. 6:24], he
has served an earthly master in that he has obeyed his edict; he has been
more obedient to human authority than to God.
(_f_) _A Libellus._ From a papyrus found at Fayum.
The text may be found in Kirch, n. 207. This is the actual
certificate which a man suspected of being a Christian obtained
from the commission appointed to carry out the edict of
persecution. It has been preserved these many centuries in the dry
Egyptian climate, and is with some others, which are less perfect,
among the most interesting relics of the ancient Church.
Presented to the Commission for the Sacrifices in the village of Alexander
Island, by Aurelius Diogenes, the son of Satabus, of the village of
Alexander Island, about seventy-two years of age, with a scar on the right
eyebrow.
I have at other times always offered to the gods as well as also now in
your presence, and according to the regulations have offered, sacrificed,
and partaken of the sacrificial meal; and I pray you to attest this.
Farewell. I, Aurelius Diogenes, have presented this.
[In a second hand.]
I, Aurelius Syrus, testify as being present that Diogenes sacrificed with
us.
[First hand.]
First year of the Emperor Cæsar Gaius Messius Quintus Trajanus Decius,
pious, happy, Augustus, 2d day of Epiphus. [June 25, 250.]
(_g_) Cyprian, _Epistula 80_ (=82). (MSL, 4:442.)
The date of this epistle is 257-258, at the outbreak of the
Valerian persecution, a revival of the Decian. It was therefore
shortly before Cyprian’s death.
Cyprian to his brother Successus, greeting. The reason why I write to you
at once, dearest brother, is that all the clergy are placed in the heat of
the contest and are unable in any way to depart hence, for all of them are
prepared, in accordance with the devotion of their mind, for divine and
heavenly glory. But you should know that those have come back whom I sent
to Rome to find out and bring us the truth concerning what had in any
manner been decreed respecting us. For many, various, and uncertain things
are currently reported. But the truth concerning them is as follows:
Valerian has sent a rescript to the Senate, to the effect that bishops,
presbyters, and deacons should be immediately punished; but that senators,
men of rank, and Roman knights should lose their dignity and be deprived
of their property; and if, when their property has been taken away, they
should persist in being Christians, that they should then also lose their
heads; but that matrons should be deprived of their property and banished.
Moreover, people of Cæsar’s household, who had either confessed before or
should now confess, should have their property confiscated, and be sent in
chains and assigned to Cæsar’s estates. The Emperor Valerian also added to
his address a copy of the letters he prepared for the presidents of the
provinces coercing us. These letters we are daily hoping will come, and we
are waiting, according to the strength of our faith, for the endurance of
suffering and expecting from the help and mercy of the Lord the crown of
eternal life. But know that Sixtus was punished [_i.e._, martyred] in the
cemetery on the eighth day of the ides of August, and with him four
deacons. The prefects of the city, furthermore, are daily urging on this
persecution; so that if any are presented to them they are punished and
their property confiscated.
I beg that these things be made known by you to the rest of our
colleagues, that everywhere by their exhortations the brotherhood may be
strengthened and prepared for the spiritual conflict, that every one may
think less of death than of immortality, and dedicated to the Lord with
full faith and courage, they may rejoice rather than fear in this
confession, wherein they know that the soldiers of God and Christ are not
slain, but crowned. I bid you, dearest brother, ever farewell in the Lord.
§ 46. Effects of the Persecution upon the Inner Life of the Church
The persecution developed the popular opinion of the superior sanctity of
martyrdom. This was itself no new idea, having grown up in the Church from
the time of Ignatius of Antioch, but it now received new applications and
developments (_a_, _b_). See also § 42, _d_, and below for problems
arising from the place the martyrs attempted to take in the organization
of the Church and the administration of discipline. This claim of the
martyrs was successfully overcome by the bishops, especially under
Cyprian’s leadership and example. But in the administration of discipline
there were sure to arise difficulties and questions, _e.g._, Was there a
distinction to be made in favor of those who had escaped without actually
sacrificing? (_c_). No matter what policy was followed by the bishop,
there was the liability of the rise of a party in opposition to him. If he
was strict, a party advocating laxity appeared, as in the case of
Felicissimus at Carthage; if he was milder in policy, a party would call
for greater rigor, as in the case of Novatian at Rome (_e_).
Additional source material: Cyprian, _Ep._ 39-45, 51 (ANF, V);
Eusebius, _Hist. Ec._, VI, 43, 45.
(_a_) Origen, _Exhortatio ad Martyrium_, 30, 50. (MSG, 11:601, 636.)
An estimate of the importance and value of martyrdom.
The _Exhortation to Martyrdom_ was addressed by Origen to his
friend and patron Ambrosius, and to Protoctetus, a presbyter of
Cæsarea, who were in great danger during the persecution
undertaken by Maximinus Thrax (235-238). It was probably written
in the reign of that Emperor.
Ch. 30. We must remember that we have sinned and that it is impossible to
obtain forgiveness of sins without baptism, and that according to the
evangelical laws it is impossible to be baptized a second time with water
and the Spirit for the forgiveness of sins, and therefore the baptism of
martyrdom is given us. For thus it has been called, as may be clearly
gathered from the passage: “Can ye drink of the cup that I drink of, and
be baptized with the baptism that I am baptized with?” [Mark 10:38]. And
in another place it is said: “But I have a baptism to be baptized with;
and how am I straightened until it be accomplished!” [Luke 12:50]. For be
sure that just as the expiation of the cross was for the whole world, it
(the baptism of martyrdom) is for the cure of many who are thereby
cleansed. For as according to the law of Moses those placed near the altar
are seen to minister forgiveness of sins to others through the blood of
bulls and goats, so the souls of those who have suffered on account of the
testimony of Jesus are not in vain near that altar in heaven [_cf._ Rev.
6:9 _ff._], but minister forgiveness of sins to those who pray. And at the
same time we know that just as the high priest, Jesus Christ, offered
himself as a sacrifice, so the priests, of whom He is the high priest,
offer themselves as sacrifices, and on account of this sacrifice they are
at the altar as in their proper place.
Ch. 50. Just as we have been redeemed with the precious blood of Christ,
who received the name that is above every name, so by the precious blood
of the martyrs will others be redeemed.
(_b_) Origen, _Homil. ad Num._, X, 2. (MSG, 12:658.)
Of Origen’s homilies on the Pentateuch only a few fragments of the
Greek text remain. We have them, however, in a Latin translation
or paraphrase made by Rufinus. The twenty-eight homilies on
Numbers were written after A. D. 244.
Concerning the martyrs, the Apostle John writes in the Apocalypse that the
souls of those who have been slain for the name of the Lord Jesus are
present at the altar; but he who is present at the altar is shown to
perform the duties of priest. But the duty of a priest is to make
intercession for the sins of the people. Wherefore I fear, lest,
perchance, inasmuch as there are made no martyrs, and sacrifices of saints
are not offered for our sins, we will not receive remission of our sins.
And therefore I fear, lest our sins remaining in us, it may happen to us
what the Jews said of themselves, that not having an altar, nor a temple,
nor priesthood, and therefore not offering sacrifices, our sins remain in
us, and so no forgiveness is obtained.… And therefore the devil, knowing
that remission of sins is obtained by the passion of martyrdom, is not
willing to raise public persecutions against us by the heathen.
(_c_) Cyprian, _Epistula 55_, 14 (=51). (MSL, 3:805.)
The opinion of the Church as to the _libellatici_. The date is 251
or 252.
Since there is much difference between those who have sacrificed, what a
want of mercy it is, and how bitter is the hardship, to associate those
who have received certificates with those who have sacrificed, when he who
has received the certificate may say, “I had previously read and had been
informed by the discourse of the bishop that we ought not to sacrifice to
idols, that the servant of God ought not to worship images; and therefore
that I might not do this which is not lawful, when the opportunity of
receiving a certificate was offered (and I would not have received it, if
the opportunity had not been offered) I either went or charged some one
other person going to the magistrate to say that I am a Christian, that I
am not allowed to sacrifice, that I cannot come to the devil’s altars, and
that I will pay a price for this purpose, that I may not do what is not
lawful for me to do”! Now, however, even he who is stained by a
certificate, after he has learned from our admonitions that he ought not
to have done even this, and though his hand is pure, and no contact of
deadly food has polluted his lips, yet his conscience is nevertheless
polluted, weeps when he hears us, and laments, and is now admonished for
the things wherein he has sinned, and having been deceived, not so much by
guilt as by error, bears witness that for another time he is instructed
and prepared.
(_d_) _Epistula pacis_, Cyprian, _Epistula 16_. (MSL, 4:268.) _Cf._ Kirch,
n. 241.
This brief Letter of Peace is a specimen of the forms that were
being issued by the confessors, and which a party in the Church
regarded as mandatory upon the bishops. These Cyprian strenuously
and successfully resisted. See also Cyprian, _Ep. 21_, in ANF, V,
299.
All the confessors to Cyprian, pope,(70) greeting. Know that we all have
given peace to those concerning whom an account has been rendered you as
to what they have done since they committed their sin; and we wish to make
this rescript known through you to the other bishops. We desire you to
have peace with the holy martyrs. Lucianus has written this, there being
present of the clergy an exorcist and a lector.
(_e_) Cyprian, _Epistula 43_, 2, 3. (MSL, 4:342.)
The schism of Felicissimus was occasioned by the position taken by
Cyprian in regard to the admission of the _lapsi_ in the Decian
persecution. But it was at the same time the outcome of an
opposition to Cyprian of longer standing, on account of jealousy,
as he had only recently become a Christian when he was made bishop
of Carthage.
Ch. 2. It has appeared whence came the faction of Felicissimus, on what
root and by what strength it stood. These men supplied in a former time
encouragements and exhortations to confessors, not to agree with their
bishop, not to maintain the ecclesiastical discipline faithfully and
quietly, according to the Lord’s precepts, not to keep the glory of their
confession with an uncorrupt and unspotted mode of life. And lest it
should have been too little to have corrupted the minds of certain
confessors and to have wished to arm a portion of our broken fraternity
against God’s priesthood, they have now applied themselves with their
envenomed deceitfulness to the ruin of the lapsed, to turn away from the
healing of their wound the sick and the wounded, and those who, by the
misfortune of their fall, are less fit and less able to take stronger
counsels; and having left off prayers and supplications, whereby with long
and continued satisfaction the Lord is to be appeased, they invite them by
the deceit of a fallacious peace to a fatal rashness.
Ch. 3. But I pray you, brethren, watch against the snares of the devil,
and being careful for your own salvation, guard diligently against this
deadly deceit. This is another persecution and another temptation. Those
five presbyters are none other than the five leaders who were lately
associated with the magistrates in an edict that they might overthrow our
faith, that they might turn away the feeble hearts of the brethren to
their deadly nets by the perversion of the truth. Now the same scheme, the
same overturning, is again brought about by the five presbyters, linked
with Felicissimus, to the destruction of salvation, that God should not be
besought, and that he who has denied Christ should not appeal for mercy to
the same Christ whom he has denied; that after the fault of the crime
repentance also should be taken away; and that satisfaction should not be
made through bishops and priests, but, the Lord’s priests being forsaken,
a new tradition of sacrilegious appointment should arise contrary to the
evangelical discipline. And although it was once arranged as well by us as
by the confessors and the clergy of the city,(71) likewise by all the
bishops located either in our province or beyond the sea [_i.e._, Italy],
that there should be no innovations regarding the case of the lapsed
unless we all assembled in one place, and when our counsels had been
compared we should then decide upon some moderate sentence, tempered alike
with discipline and with mercy; against this, our counsel, they have
rebelled and all priestly authority has been destroyed by factious
conspiracies.
(_f_) Eusebius, _Hist. Ec_., VI, 43. (MSG, 20:616.)
The schism of Novatian at Rome was occasioned by the question of
discipline of the lapsed. While the schism of Felicissimus was in
favor of more lenient treatment of those who had fallen, the
schism of Novatian was in favor of greater strictness. The sect of
Novatians, named after the founder, Novatus or Novatianus, lasted
for more than two centuries.
Novatus [Novatianus], a presbyter at Rome, being lifted up with arrogance
against these persons, as if there was no longer for them a hope of
salvation, not even if they should do all things pertaining to a pure and
genuine conversion, became the leader of the heresy of those who in the
pride of their imagination style themselves Cathari.(72) Thereupon a very
large synod assembled at Rome, of bishops in number sixty, and a great
many more presbyters and deacons; and likewise the pastors of the
remaining provinces deliberated in their places by themselves concerning
what ought to be done. A decree, accordingly, was confirmed by all that
Novatus and those who joined with him, and those who adopted his
brother-hating and inhuman opinion, should be considered by the Church as
strangers; but that they should heal such of the brethren as had fallen
into misfortune, and should minister to them with the medicines of
repentance. There have come down to us epistles of Cornelius, bishop of
Rome, to Fabius, of the church at Antioch, which show what was done at the
synod at Rome, and what seemed best to all those in Italy and Africa and
the regions thereabout. Also other epistles, written in the Latin
language, of Cyprian and those with him in Africa, by which it is shown
that they agreed as to the necessity of succoring those who had been
tempted, and of cutting off from the Catholic Church the leader of the
heresy and all that joined him.