THE POISON LORE OF TOADS AND SPIDERS
From early times the toad has had an unenviable reputation and has been
suspected of poisonous properties. Some of the early historians
attribute the death of King John of England to a friar who placed a toad
in his cup of wine. The story is no doubt fictitious, but there is some
ground for the evil reputation that has so long been associated with
this unlovely reptile. The venom of some toads is believed to possess
poisonous properties in certain countries throughout the world, and some
species are said to be particularly virulent. A few years ago Phisalix
and Bertrand undertook an investigation to ascertain if there was any
truth in the story of the poisonous properties attributed to toads. They
succeeded in extracting two powerful principles from the parotid gland
and skin of the common toad. One of these was found to act on the heart
in a similar manner to digitalis, and the other known as bufotenine
exercises a powerful paralysing action on the nerve centres.
The _Ceratophrys ornata_, a toad found in South America, is of a very
poisonous nature. It will bite anything that comes in its way and then
hang on with the tenacity of a bulldog, poisoning the blood with its
glandular secretion. Death may follow its bite, and it has been known to
kill a horse by gripping him by the nose, while the animal was cropping
grass.
Shakespeare alludes to the evil reputation of the toad in two of his
plays and the
“Toad, that under cold stone,
Days and nights went thirty-one
Swelter’d venom sleeping got,”
formed an ingredient in the witches’ hell-broth in “Macbeth.” When
dropped into the wine cup it was believed to act with deadly effect on
those who drank its contents.
In connection with the poison of the toad there is an interesting record
on a medical diploma at present in the Library of Ferrara, which was
granted to one Generoso Marini in 1642. Marini appears to have made an
application for a diploma of medicine and the judges who had the power
of granting such degrees, ordered him to produce some efficient proofs
of his capability to practise the healing art. Marini agreed to comply
with their demand and the result is recorded on his diploma, which was
discovered by Cittadella among the archives of Ferrara some years ago;
it reads as follows:—
“Having publicly examined and approved the science and knowledge of
medicine of Signor Generoso Marini, and his possession of the wonderful
secret called ‘Orvietano,’ which he exhibited on the stage built in the
centre of this our city of Ferrara, in presence of its entire
population, so remarkable for their civilisation and learning, and in
presence of many foreigners and other classes of people, we hereby
certify that, also in our presence, as well as that of the city
authorities, he took several living toads, not those of his own
providing, but from a great number of toads, which had been caught in
fields in the locality by persons who were strangers to him, and which
were only handed to him at the moment of making the experiment. An
officer of the court then selected from the number of toads collected,
five of the largest, which the said Generoso Marini placed on a bench
before him, and in presence of all assembled spectators, he, with a
large knife, cut all the said toads in half. Then, taking a drinking
cup, he took in each hand one half of a dead toad, and squeezed from it
all the juices and fluids it contained into the cup, and the same he did
with the remainder. After mixing the contents together, he swallowed the
whole, and then placing the cup on the bench he advanced to the edge of
the stage, where for some minutes he remained stationary. Then he became
pale as death and his limbs trembled and his body began to swell in a
frightful and terrible manner; and all the spectators began to believe
that he would never recover from the poison he had swallowed, and that
his death was certain. Suddenly taking from a jar by his side some of
his celebrated ‘Orvietano,’ he placed a portion of it in his mouth and
swallowed it. Instantly the effect of this wonderful medicine was to
make him vomit the poison he had taken, and he stood before the
spectators in the full enjoyment of health.
“The populace applauded him highly for the indisputable proof he had
given of his talent, and he then invited many of the most learned of
those present to accompany him to his house, and he there showed them
his dispensary as well as his collection of antidotes, and among them a
powder made from little vipers, a powerful remedy for curing every sort
of fever, as he had proved by different experiments he had made on
people of quality and virtue, all of whom he had cured of the fever from
which they were suffering, etc.
“In consequence of the rare talent exhibited by Signor Generoso Marini,
and as a proof of our love and respect for his wisdom, we have resolved
by the authority placed in our hands publicly to reward him with a
diploma so that he may be universally recognised, applauded and
respected. In witness thereof we have set our hands and the public seal
of the municipality of Ferrara.
“Data in Ferrara con grandissimo applauso il di 26 Luglio, 1642.
“JOANNES CAJETANUS MODONI,
Index sapientum Civitatis Ferrari.
“FRANCISCUS ALTRAMARI,
Cancellarius.”
But although the toad under certain conditions was credited with
poisonous properties, during the Middle Ages it was esteemed a valuable
remedy for the plague and was employed for that purpose in Austria as
late as the year 1712.
The country people of Brazil believe the milky secretion of the common
toad possesses wonderful curative properties and use it externally as a
cure for shingles. In these cases living toads are generally applied to
the part affected.
The poisonous drug known as “Senso” in China and Japan is said to be
composed of the dried poison from a species of toad. It has been found
to contain cholesterol, the bufagin of Abel and Macht; bufotenine, and a
base resembling epinephrine. Bufagin causes a marked rise of blood
pressure, and acts as a diuretic. It is toxic in small doses. Bufotenine
acts as a local anæsthetic, causes convulsions of the medullary type,
and is pharmacologically allied to picrotoxin. The base, resembling
epinephrine, is a powerful sympathicomimetic poison.
Certain species of spider possess poisonous properties, notably the
_Chiracanthium nutrix_ and the _Epeira diadema_. The bite of the female
of the former is distinctly venomous, and one milligramme of the juice
of the latter variety injected into a cat resulted in death.
Some curious methods of the manner in which some Indian tribes of South
America utilize a poisonous grass as a method of defence have been
investigated by Bomain. He found that a belt of this plant formed a
natural barrier between the Indian tribes who lived on each side of a
range of mountains, where it flourished. Animals died as soon as they
ate the poisonous grass, and thus a hostile tribe was prevented from
encroaching on the territory of another.
On scientific investigation, it was discovered that a few hundred grains
of the grass would kill a horse or a mule in an hour or two, the deadly
effect being due to the production of prussic acid, which was caused by
the decomposition of a glucosive under the influence of a ferment.
A mysterious poison is said to be known among some of the gipsy tribes
of Europe which is supposed to consist of the germs of a certain
poisonous fungus. When mixed with food it causes death in from two to
three weeks after administration. The symptoms produced are said to be
similar to those of typhoid fever. A case of poisoning with this
substance, which is known to the gipsies by the name of “Dri” or “Drei,”
was reported in London in 1864.