THE WATCH OFFICER
The Officer of the Watch or the Watch Officer, as he is usually termed
in the Merchant Service, is the deck officer who has charge of the
vessel while under way at sea. On other occasions, if stopped through
trouble, or because of communication with other vessels, or on occasions
requiring special maneuvering, as in coming in and out of port, rescues
at sea, etc., the Master assumes full charge.
+The Watch Officers.+ The watch officers are usually the Chief, Second
and Third Mates, on vessels of moderate tonnage. In larger craft
different watches are arranged. Then the Chief Mate may stand no regular
bridge watch, and the Second, Third, and Fourth Mates take this duty.
In some liners it is the custom to style the watch officers, all
"second" officers; namely Senior, Junior, and Extra, Second Officers.
These are usually all master mariners. Junior officers of the watch are
also on the bridge, attend to the conning of the course, the working of
navigation and bearings, and the keeping of the bridge log, which is
signed by the senior watch officer at the end of the watch.
+Importance of Watch Duty.+ For a long time a slipshod method of keeping
watch prevailed in certain steamers, the outgrowth of second-rate
sailing-ship practice, where thrifty, but ill-informed, masters,
insisted on their watch officers keeping "busy" during the day.
It was thought advisable by these gentlemen to have the officer on the
bridge "with nothing to do" attend to a bit of sewing on canvas, or help
out with the painting, and what not. Of course such masters were doomed
to the scrap heap where they belong. A few miles added to the coal bill,
through slovenly daytime steering, with kinks in the course as well as
in the seams sewed by the misused officer, soon brought about reform.
Added to this a certain danger, such as running down submerged hulls,
and the like—with the thing happening once or twice, helped to wake up
owners. Also, the bumping of two of these "economical" (and lubberly)
craft, may have helped too.
FROM NAVIGATION LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES
The board of local inspectors shall make an entry in the certificate of
inspection of every ocean and coastwise seagoing merchant vessel of the
United States propelled by machinery, and every ocean-going vessel
carrying passengers, the minimum number of licensed deck officers
required for her safe navigation according to the following scale:
That no such vessel shall be navigated unless she shall have on board
and in her service one duly licensed master. (Mar. 3, 1913; sec. 2.)
Three watches.
That every such vessel of one thousand gross tons and over, propelled by
machinery, shall have in her service and on board three licensed mates,
who shall stand in three watches while such vessel is being navigated,
unless such vessel is engaged in a run of less than four hundred miles
from the port of departure to the port of final destination, then such
vessel shall have two licensed mates; and every vessel of two hundred
gross tons and less than one thousand gross tons, propelled by
machinery, shall have two licensed mates.
That every such vessel of one hundred gross tons and under two hundred
gross tons, propelled by machinery, shall have on board and in her
service one licensed mate; but if such vessel is engaged in a trade in
which the time required to make the passage from the port of departure
to the port of destination exceeds twenty-four hours, then such vessel
shall have two licensed mates.
That nothing in this section shall be so construed as to prevent local
inspectors from increasing the number of licensed officers on any vessel
subject to the inspection laws of the United States if, in their
judgment, such vessel is not sufficiently manned for her safe
navigation: _Provided_, That this section shall not apply to fishing or
whaling vessels, yachts, or motor boats as defined in the Act of June
ninth, nineteen hundred and ten.
Rest before going on watch.
It shall be unlawful for the master, owner, agent, or other person
having authority, to permit an officer of any vessel to take charge of
the deck watch of the vessel upon leaving or immediately after leaving
port, unless such officer shall have had at least six hours off duty
within the twelve hours immediately preceding the time of sailing, and
no licensed officer on any ocean or coastwise vessel shall be required
to do duty to exceed nine hours of any twenty-four while in port,
including the date of arrival, or more than twelve hours of any
twenty-four at sea, except in a case of emergency when life or property
is endangered. Any violation of this section shall subject the person or
persons guilty thereof to a penalty of one hundred dollars. (Sec. 3.)
+Master Liable.+ The improper keeping of watch comes clearly under the
head of negligence, or even misconduct, and the law governing this is of
importance. The penalty, when death results from such negligence,
misconduct, etc. is TEN THOUSAND DOLLARS FINE or IMPRISONMENT FOR TEN
YEARS, +OR BOTH+.
The law is given below:
Death from negligence, misconduct, etc.
Every captain, engineer, pilot, or other person employed on any
steamboat or vessel, by whose misconduct, negligence, or inattention to
his duties on such vessel the life of any person is destroyed, and every
owner, charterer, inspector, or other public officer, through whose
fraud, neglect, connivance, misconduct, or violation of law the life of
any person is destroyed, shall be fined not more than ten thousand
dollars, or imprisoned not more than ten years, or both: _Provided_,
That when the owner or charterer of any steamboat or vessel shall be a
corporation, any executive officer of such corporation, for the time
being actually charged with the control and management of the operation,
equipment, or navigation of such steamboat or vessel, who has knowingly
and willfully caused or allowed such fraud, neglect, connivance,
misconduct, or violation of law, by which the life of any person is
destroyed, shall be fined not more than ten thousand dollars, or
imprisoned not more than ten years, or both. (Sec. 282; Repeals R. S.,
5344, and act Mar. 3, 1905, sec. 5.)
Watch officers should also heed another matter, a section of Rule V, of
the Board of Supervising Inspectors, this rule is also given:
Only certain persons allowed in pilot house and on navigator's bridge.
17. Masters and pilots of steamers carrying passengers shall exclude
from the pilot houses and navigator's bridge of such steamers, while
under way, all persons not connected with the navigation of such
steamers, except officers of the Steamboat-Inspection Service, Coast
Guard, and engineer officers of the United States Army in charge of the
improvement of that particular waterway, when upon business: _Provided_,
That licensed officers of steamboats, persons regularly engaged in
learning the profession of pilot, officers of the United States Navy,
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, and Lighthouse Service,
assistant engineers of the Engineer Department of the United States Army
connected with the improvement of that particular waterway, and the
engineer officers connected with the construction and operation of the
Panama Canal may be allowed in the pilot house or upon the navigator's
bridge upon the responsibility of the officer in charge.
The master of every such passenger and ferry steamer shall keep three
printed copies of this section of Rule V posted in conspicuous places on
such steamer, one of which shall be kept posted in the pilot house.
Such printed copies shall be furnished by the Department of Commerce to
local inspectors for distribution. (Sec. 4405, R. S.)
+Relieving the Watch.+ On well-conducted vessels no part of the routine
is so important, and so necessary of clear-cut understanding, as the
matter of turning over the watch.
On a steamer in which the writer had the good fortune to serve—a liner
in the Transatlantic service—this formality was practiced with the
utmost precision.
The officer in charge of the watch would keep facing ahead, near the
telegraph, if the weather was thick. He would turn over the data of the
watch rapidly and clearly; the relieving officer having already read
over and initialed the Captain's order book.
Special orders from the Captain.
Position—how obtained—when.
Vessels passed; in last hour, at least.
Weather—fog if any; sea rising or falling.
Wind, veering, or hauling.
Distance made—by log—revolutions.
Soundings taken—if any.
Lights sighted, or expected; if in pilot waters.
How vessel was steering—wild—good—etc.
+THEN—being ready to turn over the watch:+
"The course is N. 76 degrees east," says the Officer of the Watch.
"N. 76 degrees, east," is the reply, and the moment these words are
spoken the relief is in charge, and steps next to the telegraph.
+An Incident at Eight Bells.+ This simple ceremony of turning the watch
over took place one morning at eight bells—it was a smoky channel
morning, heavy weather had been met with on the run eastward, and the
train for London was waiting at Southampton, for the first-class
passengers who expected to dine at the metropolis that night. It was
foggy, and the vessel was doing close to twenty knots; the telegraphs at
"stand by." Everything had been passed over to the relief. The
quartermasters and juniors had relieved each other, two watches were on
the bridge at once, in the cold wet mist. One crowd, still a trifle
sleepy, but filled with a sea breakfast, the other tired and wet.
Just as the course was being given, and half completed, something leapt
out of the gray fog:
Three "toots"[1] on the horn in the crow's nest, sounded and a
four-masted sailer shot up, as if a picture thrown on the screen of fog
ahead.
"+Hard Starb'd!+" the order snapped out on the tail of the words of the
course. The wet and draggled officer of the watch had not yet received
his reply—+he was still in charge+.
His order came with the harsh jangle of the telegraph—he was stopping
the port engine—and we swept past an iron four-masted ship, her crew
clambering to the bulwarks, her sails slatting in the breeze, as we got
the first sound of her horn.
The above is an instance where something happened at a critical moment.
But both officers were trained men, and the man in charge knew he was
still responsible, and acted without a second of delay.
+Responsibility.+ Few men, aside from those who serve as officers at
sea, have the responsibility of life and property so directly under them
as the officers of the watch.
The young man who takes his first watch as officer in charge—with the
great vessel—her lives—and cargo, all obedient to his order and
dependent upon his skill and quickness in the sudden emergency that may
spring up at any moment; that youngster is to be congratulated. Few men
are given the direct handling and responsibility for such mighty forces.
He, in most cases, realizes this. Accidents are usually the outgrowth of
carelessness, resulting from long watches at sea +where nothing ever
happens+.
It is necessary that the officer of the watch constantly keep his edge.
The old-fashioned system of "watch and watch," that man- and
soul-killing drill of an age of short-sighted "economy," has come to be
frowned upon by those who have had to pay the bills resulting from
accident and loss.
The Officer of the watch should come to the bridge fresh and in full
vigor. His senses of sight and hearing should be acute; he should be
completely awake during the whole four hours of his duty.
He should constantly keep in mind what he must do under certain
emergencies.
He should constantly be rehearsing disaster—with foresight as his mentor.
He must have ingrained in his being the instinctive knowledge of PORT
and STARBOARD, and what they mean. Not as +words, but as effects+.
He should be a part of the ship. The direction of her head, or the
action of her engines, should be as natural to him as any movement of
his own body.
This habit of mind enables an officer to act as quick as he can think—to
do the right thing without an instant of hesitation.
+Rules of the Road.+ The rules of the road should also be a part of his
unconscious knowledge—particularly those rules relating to the
prevention of collision at sea.
Many watch officers—familiar with the rules of the Road on the high
seas, are lamentably lax when conning their vessel through narrow
waters; here is where a great percentage of the accidents to vessels
occur. Know the inland rules, the whistle signals; the proper side of
the fairways to take; the buoys and marks.
+What to Look Out for.+ The officer of the watch should keep his eyes
pretty close to the water ahead; even in the sleepy times of peace. Look
for patches of weed; and avoid them. Look for submerged wreckage;
floating mines—for many years after the war—well whitened with bird
droppings, and almost invisible in the wake of the sun.
And at the present time no merchantman needs to be warned to look out
for periscopes, or what to do when he sees one—and remember they are
camouflaged too. Do not be too quick to ram a periscope that is lying
still. It may be a mine.
+Vessels without Lights.+ Vessels in dangerous waters now run without
the usual lights—in fact with no lights at all. This brings us to the
question of redoubled vigilance of the keenest and most wide-awake type
of watch officer. As vessels become more valuable, and more
necessary—the necessity for the best kind of conning is self evident.
Yet, due to our unfortunate lack of sea interest it is now necessary, to
let down the bars and send back to the sea men who lack in the keenness
and training that the situation demands, men who are simply so because
of our faulty lack of foresight in the past.
+The running without lights is sanctioned by the governments at war, as
a necessary war measure and fog signals are omitted in war zones.+
+The Unwritten Rule.+ Watch officers have long considered an "unwritten
rule" that has no doubt been acted upon. Namely, if you see collision
coming, "hit the other fellow." This of course is to be taken for what
it is worth and should find no response in the mind of the young officer
who tramps the bridge on the night watch and works out the problems of
the sea.
The law is very concise about the "Risk of collision" and collision
comes without much warning. The one thing that is positive, is the duty
to stand by, and this is incumbent on both vessels.
+Risk of Collision Rule.+ Risk of collision can, when circumstances
permit, be ascertained by carefully watching the compass bearing of an
approaching vessel. If the bearing does not appreciably change, such
risk should be deemed to exist.
+Duty to Stay by.+ In every case of collision between two vessels it
shall be the duty of the master or person in charge of each vessel, if
and so far as he can do so without serious danger to his own vessel,
crew, and passengers (if any), to stay by the other vessel until he has
ascertained that she has no need of further assistance, and to render to
the other vessel, her master, crew, and passengers (if any), such
assistance as may be practicable and as may be necessary in order to
save them from any danger caused by the collision, and also to give to
the master or person in charge of the other vessel the name of his own
vessel and her port of registry, or the port or place to which she
belongs, and also the name of the ports and places from which and to
which she is bound.
If he fails so to do, and no reasonable cause for such failure is shown,
the collision shall, in the absence of proof to the contrary, be deemed
to have been caused by his wrongful act, neglect, or default.
Every master or person in charge of a United States vessel who fails,
without reasonable cause, to render such assistance or give such
information as aforesaid shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and
shall be liable to a penalty of one thousand dollars, or imprisonment
for a term not exceeding two years; and for the above sum the vessel
shall be liable and may be seized and proceeded against by process in
any district court of the United States by any person; one-half such sum
to be payable to the informer and the other half to the United States.
+Dangerous Conditions.+ Fog, mist, bright moonlight, coal black night,
with phosphorescent sea; all are dangerous conditions so far as
visibility is concerned. From three to five in the morning; at the tail
of the mid watch, and for the first hour of the morning watch, when
vitality is low, and the senses of man lag with the coming of the dawn;
then is the time that the officer of the watch should key himself to a
sense of complete responsibility—helped out by black coffee if it can be
had—and every steamer should provide this at the change of watch, and
oftener if need be.
+Look Out.+ Be alive to the changes of the weather. Steamship officers
are liable to lack in this respect. Watch the stars, if out. Note the
sudden snuffing out of stars near the horizon—watch out for fog banks
lying low ahead.
Look out for white water, squalls, get awnings in before they are blown
away—never leaving the bridge, of course, unless the Master relieves.
+Ice.+ If in the dangerous latitudes look out for ice. Note sudden
changes in the temperature of air and sea. The sea water should be taken
every hour at least. Ice gives no warning—sense it, and slow down before
it is too late. Remember the Titanic.
Watch the barometer changes—the clouds—the wind, and its changes,
whether veering, or hauling.
+Important.+ Know the sailing ship routes—study the pilot charts—and
always remember the possible speed and condition of sail, whether on the
wind, or free, of sailing vessels that are liable to be met with in your
vicinity.
+Night Orders.+ The night order book contains two sets of orders:
THE STANDING ORDERS
+A. Before taking charge make yourself thoroughly familiar with the
position of the ship with reference to vessels in sight, any land or
shoals or rocks that may be near; with the general condition of the
weather, speed, revolutions, sail, if any is set, awnings, boats swung
out, running lights, and the orders of the Captain for the night.+
+B. Make no change in the course—unless instructed to do so by the
night orders, without obtaining the permission of the Captain—unless it
is necessary to avoid immediate danger. Then report promptly to the
Captain—by messenger or telephone.+
+C. Make no change in the speed, unless as directed by the night
orders, or to avoid collision.+
+D. Report promptly to the Captain all lights upon the shore;
discolored water; unusual weather conditions; and report all vessels
sighted and their nature, when this can be determined. (At night, it is
not usual to report every steamer passed.)+
+E. When in doubt about anything affecting the safety of the vessel,
call the Captain at once.+
+F. In the event of fire, or any kind of disturbance or accident, call
the Captain at once, and report same.+
+G. Man overboard; act at once, stop, reverse, release water lights and
ring buoys, call away quarter boat, and call Captain.+
+H. Keep lookouts posted after dark, or in fog. Comply with all the
regulations for preventing collisions at sea. Call Captain if it gets
thick; start fog signals at once.+
+I. Report all unusual changes in sea or weather to the Captain. If
engines stop, or slow down without orders from the bridge, call Captain
at once.+
+J. Take bearings on the course whenever suitable stars are available.
Call Captain at any unusual change in deviation, or error.+
+K. Get sights when favorable conditions present themselves. Report all
fixes to the Captain, on Officers' Report Blanks, show bearings, and
time (ship) and log readings.+
+L. All officers must read and sign these STANDING ORDERS, and must
read and sign the night order book at the beginning of their watch,
before taking over the course.+
THE NIGHT ORDERS
The night orders are usually written up by the Master in the dog watch
and are signed by the officer coming on for the first night watch,
eight to midnight.
They may be amended and added to at any time. If the Master adds
anything to the orders he will relieve the officer of the watch, while
his added instructions are being read and initialed, if necessary.
The night orders are liable to instruct about:
+Changes in the course—when—how much—what course.+
+Cautions as to lights and landfalls expected.+
+Cautions as to vessels to be met.+
+Cautions as to weather changes.+
+Instructions as to calling of Captain, Chief Mate, etc.+
+Instructions as to getting under way, calling officers, men,
(when at anchor).+
+Instructions as to navigation—sights—bearings.+
* * * * *
+The Deck.+ Where the Chief Mate stands a bridge watch, the officer of
the watch is generally considered to be in charge of the men on deck,
though they may be engaged at work under the boatswain—work laid out by
the Chief Mate. This, however, is largely a matter of organization. If
the vessel is small, the officer of the watch can keep an eye on things
from the bridge. If he needs assistance of any kind he calls for it. He
directs the taking in of awnings, and sails, if carried, the turning of
ventilators, the closing of the cowls in case of rain.
+Fire.+ In the event of fire:
CALL THE CAPTAIN, if a junior officer, call the Chief Mate also.
At the same time sound the fire alarms.
The usual fire drill then takes place.
The vessel is turned over to the Captain as soon as fire is reported and
the officer of the watch attends at the fire or does as he is directed
by the Captain. The Chief Engineer should also be informed of the fire,
and the engineer on watch is advised of it by telephone or by voice tube.
The wireless operators are advised at once and await the orders of the
Captain, except in case of sudden disaster, when they at once send out
their calls for assistance.
+Being Overtaken.+ When your vessel is being overtaken, set off flare-up
and call Captain at once. On many slow cargo steamers a lookout astern
is almost as necessary as a lookout ahead.
+Running Lights.+ In narrow waters have oil lamps trimmed and ready for
use, in case the electric lights give out. This is very important.
+In War Zone.+ The standing of watches in the war zone is subject to
special precautions.
The following recommendations have been published by the Supervising
Inspector General:
Recommendations.
Reliable information is to the effect that many or nearly all of the
lives that have been lost from vessels after attack has been due to the
fact that, in many instances, the boats have been launched while the
ship has had considerable way, either ahead or astern, and that
engineers have been compelled to abandon the engine room while the
engines were still working.
It is suggested, therefore, that the bridge watch, or the master,
assure themselves, if possible, that the engines are at rest and the
way off the vessel before the boats are launched. It is also strongly
recommended that, due to the possibility of the boats on the weather
side of the ship not being available, the full lifeboat capacity on
cargo ships be carried on each side so that full capacity may be
available at all times.
It is strongly and earnestly recommended that on all vessels entering
the War Zone, or the dangerous areas, the passengers and crew be kept
fully prepared (so far as may be possible or the navigation of the
vessel permits), for speedy and immediate disembarking, or abandoning
ship in case of emergency, and that the crew be furnished with life
preservers of such character as to allow the free use of the arms in
rowing and boat launching. All should be warmly clad without
unnecessary or hindering incumbrance.
The requirements and suggestions herein set forth should be met
promptly and generously, and it is expected that all concerned will
cooperate in making better and safer conditions in the navigation of
dangerous areas. Local inspectors, however, will not unnecessarily
delay vessels from proceeding on their voyage to ports of the Allied
Governments if it is not possible to meet these requirements previous
to the appointed time of departure.
GEO. UHLER,
_Supervising Inspector General_.
+Zig-zag.+ The great utility of zig-zagging is recognized. The Zig-zag
control apparatus, marketed by Captain Arthur N. McGray of New York, has
special advantages, and watch officers should master its use.
+Bearings.+ Get bearings, +bow and beam+, +two point+, or +cross+, at
every opportunity. Get +vertical angles+, +horizontal angles+,
+tangents+, wherever possible. +Fix+ the vessel as often as you can.
If the vessel carried a three-armed protractor, get the horizontal
angles between any three objects that are visible, and favorably
situated with reference to the vessel, +and are plotted on the chart+.
+Lights.+ See all light houses, and light ships, when you expect to, or
call the Captain.
+Azimuths—Amplitudes.+ Get azimuths and amplitudes at every favorable
opportunity and see the results carefully entered in the deviation log,
so the Captain can inspect them.
+Sights.+ Get sights as often as possible on the watch. With clear
horizon at twilight, get stars east and west, and north and south. Such
a fix is often most important. Check up all dead reckoning by
observations.
+Hydrographic Reports.+ The report blanks furnished by the Hydrographic
Office should be carefully filled out and forwarded. This duty is
usually given to one of the junior officers.
+Pilot Charts.+ The officer on watch can very profitably occupy his mind
in studying the pilot charts furnished by the U. S. Hydrographic Office,
they yield much useful data, and are specially useful in warning of the
existence of derelicts, and their possible drift.
+Derelicts.+ Trace out all derelicts shown in your path with their
possible drift since last report. Always keep a sharp lookout for them,
whether on the pilot chart or not.
+Bridge.+ Many bridges are fitted with comfortable shelters at the
wings—others with elaborate enclosures. A simple work desk should be
provided, when only one officer is on watch, so he can work out
bearings, etc., while on the bridge, facing ahead.
+Useful Desk.+ The desk also serves as a handy table for his sextant, or
for a cup of hot coffee—cabin style.
+Quartermasters.+ Quartermasters are usually carried, and they are under
the immediate charge of the officer of the watch. The care of the
bridge, its neat and shipshape appearance, reflects credit, or
otherwise, on the watch officers.
+Bridge Etiquette.+ The etiquette of the bridge, in the Merchant
Service, especially on the large liners, is as formal and stiff as that
on any battleship. The heights of responsibility are always on high
tension. In the lesser trades, on tramps and the like, officers are more
lax, though they should be no less vigilant.
Salutes are given and returned (on the liners) and uniform is worn.
Relieving officer should be on bridge at least five minutes before eight
bells.
+Commissions M. M.+ The British Merchant Service is at the present time
strongly advocating commissions, by the Government, for Merchant Marine
Officers. With our Shipping Board, and with the growing control by
military and naval authorities over merchantmen, some such plan might be
advisable for American Merchant Marine Officers, and would undoubtedly
help to elevate the standards, and bring the naval and mercantile
services into closer harmony.
+Standard Uniform.+ The British Merchant Service associations are also
agitating the question of some sort of standard uniform for merchant
service, officers and men.
This is a good idea, and should be adopted by Americans. The writer,
however, would not advise the adoption of the naval blouse. This is the
property of the U. S. Navy. Merchant officers, if they adopt any sort of
uniform, should provide themselves with something having pockets, and a
roll collar, and less on the order of a princess gown.
+Conclusion.+ The watch officers of a vessel should be as familiar as
possible with the handling qualities of their vessel:
Her turning circle.
Her quickest turn—usually both screws ahead.
Her shortest turn—inner screw slow astern and the way her head
scends, under all conditions.
See that the course is kept religiously—use small helm, be quick and
courteous. Keep a sharp lookout for signals when passing craft at
sea—Call Captain—and reply smartly.
THE WATCH OFFICER—IN PORT
While in port, merchant ships, except the larger liners, do not indulge
in the luxury of an officer of the watch, in fact such a gentleman would
be out of place with his telescope under his arm, dodging drafts of
cargo, and listening to the repartee of the stevedores. Everything in
its place, and as common sense rules in the long run, the formalities of
the merchant service have settled down to the more simple courtesies of
life.
A quartermaster should be on gangway watch, cleanly dressed, or in
uniform, if it is worn, to see that only those who have business on
board are admitted to the ship. He should salute the officers, who will
return it.
On Sundays, and Holidays, when cargo is not being worked, and when the
ship is at rest, an officer should be told off to stand day's duty. He
should see that the vessel is in shipshape order, falls neatly coiled,
decks clean, Irish pendants all removed, awnings hauled out taut, flags
closely mast headed and kept clear, and that everything is kept in
immaculate order about the gangway. He should not allow loitering about
the gangway.
[1] Three toots vessel (or light) ahead.