THE
ENGLISHMAN’S HOUSE.
[Illustration: HOUSES MADE PICTURESQUE.]
THE
ENGLISHMAN’S HOUSE.
_A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SELECTING OR
BUILDING A HOUSE._
[Illustration]
BY
C. J. RICHARDSON,
AUTHOR OF “OLD ENGLISH MANSIONS,” ETC.
THIRD EDITION, WITH NEARLY 600 ILLUSTRATIONS.
London:
CHATTO AND WINDUS, PICCADILLY.
LONDON:
SAVILL, EDWARDS AND CO., PRINTERS, CHANDOS STREET,
COVENT GARDEN.
PREFACE.
Several years ago the author of this volume published a small work on
the Warming and Ventilation of Buildings which was very favourably
received by the Public, but is now out of print. He afterwards wrote
various other works illustrating the Architecture of England during the
reigns of Queen Elizabeth and James I., with one volume on Ornamental
Designs. These had an extensive sale, and are now, like the first small
volume, out of print. His last publication was a small pamphlet,
entitled, “The Smoke Nuisance and its Remedy, with remarks on Liquid
Fuel,” the subject of which, at least so far as regards an improved
construction for the domestic chimney flue, is continued in the present
volume.
The present volume consists of numerous plans, &c., for Cottages,
Villas, and small and large Mansions, most of which have been carried
into execution. They are carefully selected from a large collection of
similar subjects, the result of many years’ professional practice, and
it is hoped that they may be favourably received.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
INTRODUCTION 3
DESIGN NO. 1. A GARDENER’S COTTAGE 50
“ 2. A SMALL COTTAGE OR LODGE 56
“ 3. A PICTURESQUE COTTAGE 62
“ 4. A DOUBLE COTTAGE 66
“ 5. A DOUBLE COTTAGE AND VILLAGE
SUNDAY SCHOOL 70
“ 6. A HUNTSMAN’S LODGE OR COTTAGE 78
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION FOR BUILDING
COTTAGES 82
“ 7. A GARDEN GATE 95
“ 8. A PARK LODGE 99
“ 9. A PARK LODGE 102
“ 10. AN ENTRANCE LODGE TO A PARK 104
“ 11. AN ENTRANCE LODGE AND GATEWAY
TO A PARK 112
“ 12. A STOVE FOR AN ENTRANCE HALL 120
“ 13. QUEEN’S GATE LODGE, HYDE PARK 124
ON THE FOUNDATION AND BASEMENT
WALLS OF BUILDINGS, DAMP PREVENTION,
AND FIRE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION 151
“ 14. A SMALL COUNTRY RECTORY 162
“ 15. A SMALL COUNTRY HOUSE 174
“ 16. A COUNTRY VILLA 182
“ 17. A DOUBLE SUBURBAN VILLA 192
“ 18. VILLAGE SCHOOLS AND READING ROOM 208
“ 19. A ROMAN CATHOLIC CHAPEL AND
SCHOOLS 210
“ 20. A BATH HOUSE AND SUMMER ROOM 214
“ 21. A SMALL COUNTRY VILLA 222
“ 22. A VILLA IN THE OLD ENGLISH WOODEN
STYLE 232
“ 23. A GARDEN SUMMER HOUSE 262
“ 24. A SMALL COUNTRY RETREAT, OR
FRENCH MAISONETTE 268
“ 25. AN ELIZABETHAN VILLA 280
“ 26. A SUMMER OR GARDEN VILLA 302
“ 27. A DECORATED WINDOW 336
“ 28. A SCULPTOR’S VILLA 338
“ 29. A GARDEN SEAT 361
“ 30. A GARDEN SEAT 368
“ 31. AN ICE HOUSE 370
“ 32. A SUBURBAN VILLA 373
“ 33. A SUBURBAN VILLA 382
“ 34. RIDING-HOUSE AND STABLING 389
“ 35. A BACHELOR’S HOUSE 401
THE FIREPLACE 404
“ 36. A LECTURE HALL, OR LITERARY
INSTITUTION 456
“ 37. ENCAUSTIC TILES 460
“ 38. RESTORATION OF CASTLE GUNNARSTROP,
SWEDEN 464
“ 39. SUMMER VILLA FOR THE COUNT KINSKI
AT TEPLITZ 470
“ 40. HARRINGTON HOUSE, QUEEN’S PALACE
GARDENS 476
[Illustration]
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER
ON THE PICTURESQUE IN RELATION TO ARCHITECTURE.
[Illustration: Grecian Temple.]
It has been said that a definition of the picturesque in respect to
architecture, or indeed any branch of the fine arts, is scarcely
possible. The most able writers on the subject have failed to convey an
adequate and popular idea. In fact the term has so great and extensive
an application as to forbid exact definition. The architect usually
considers that if his building look well when seen by moonlight, or
through the medium of a foggy or dull atmosphere, it is picturesque, and
he is satisfied. Blenheim Castle and Castle Howard have always been
pointed out as eminent examples of the picturesque in buildings. But
this quality varies with every change of situation and circumstance
under which it can be conceived.
The entrance to the Acropolis of Athens, with its noble equestrian
statues in the foreground, the steps between them, and the beautiful
temples rising at different heights behind, giving a varied outline, the
whole probably delicately coloured, must have been picturesque in the
highest degree. The Temple of the Winds and the Monument of Lysicrates
were equally examples of the picturesque. Yet although great efforts
were made on the publication of Athenian Stuart’s volumes to introduce
pure Grecian architecture here, it has obtained no hold with us. St.
Pancras Church, and St. Stephen’s, Camden Town, are probably the last
specimens in our metropolis. The delicate mouldings of the one are
destroyed by the roughness of the climate, and the beautiful figures of
the Caryatidæ in the other are covered with soot.
There is no doubt that the Roman temples were as picturesque and as
varied in outline as the Grecian buildings of which they were studies,
but none remain
[Illustration: Roman Temple in Ruins.]
sufficiently perfect to illustrate them. In their original, entire
state, with the surfaces and colour smooth and even, either in painting
or reality, they were beautiful; in ruins, there is no denying they are
highly picturesque. Observe the process by which time, the great author
of such changes works, first by means of weather stains, partial
incrustations, mosses, &c., which simultaneously take off the uniformity
of surface and of colour, giving a degree of roughness, and variety of
tint. Then the various accidents of weather loosen the stones
themselves: they tumble in irregular masses upon what was perhaps smooth
turf or pavement, or nicely trimmed walks and shrubberies, now mixed and
overgrown with wild plants and creepers that crawl over and shoot among
the falling ruins. Sedums, wall-flowers, and other plants that bear
drought, find nourishment in the decayed cement from which the stones
have been detached; birds convey their food into the chinks, and yew,
elder, and other berried plants project from the sides; while the ivy
mantles over other parts, and crowns the top. The even, regular lines of
the doors and windows are broken, and through their ivy-fringed openings
is displayed in a highly broken and picturesque manner that striking
image described by Virgil:
“Apparet domus intus, et atria longa patescunt
Apparent Priami et veterum penetralia regum.”
The first view given in this volume attempts to show the picturesque
effect of the Grecian Temple in its complete state, the attendants
having just retired from some display or ceremony; the second, the front
of a Roman Temple in its noble remains.
To the Greeks we owe all the general principles and forms of classic
art, but they have been modified to modern ideas and tastes, and, it may
be added, to suit also the various climates of the countries where they
have been adopted.
However much the occupations of our countrymen may partake of the
commercial character, the mental qualities requisite to such pursuits
have not been so displayed as to exclude a taste for art. Where, for
example, can be found superior specimens of art-choice than exist in
their mansions, villas, or cottage-ornées, their picture and sculpture
galleries, or the museums and other collections of those whose business
pursuits have been the cause of their prosperity.
An essential element of success in every branch of progress is involved
in tasteful selection. Without considering those classes who by
successful efforts of their ancestry have been placed beyond the pale of
want (either artificial or real), a large proportion of our population
may be ranked as having advanced morally, socially, and commercially by
that intuition which characterizes our national progress. It takes as
its basis nature and nature’s products. It eliminates from these not
only pecuniary benefits that in a commercial point of view may occur,
but associating the useful with the beautiful (the sense of the latter
having been gained during intervals of quiet thought as a relief from
the incessant requirements of business engagements), a tendency to
embody the picturesque, especially in regard to architecture, arises. We
have no hesitation in assigning to this cause the production of some of
the most picturesque architectural erections which grace our
country,--that render English homes an example, and prove that, while
the main element of our national prosperity is making money, we are not
insensible to the beneficent influences resulting from the cultivation
of refined taste.
It would be interesting as an object of careful inquiry, if there
existed sufficient data for the purpose, to trace each of the many steps
that have occurred between the birth of architecture and its present
condition. The early history of mankind had as its locality climates
which favoured the construction and use of the _crudest_ contrivances,
intended only to meet the few wants of shelter and occasional domestic
privacy. The first condition of man’s existence, either in this
primitive or modern state, is that of roving or wandering tribes.
Instances of this are found in the early inhabitants of Asia Minor, and
adjacent countries, and at the present day the same habit is maintained
in Central Asia, Arabia, and many parts of America. As soon as the
sustenance afforded for their cattle is consumed in one district a
migration is made to another. Gradually, however, centres of trade
sprung up where commodities could be bartered for live stock. Men thus
became massed together in villages and towns. Quitting a semi-savage
condition, they built permanent residences in place of the tent. At
first these, like the log-hut of the modern Canadian, were only
sufficient for the most common necessities of life. In course of time,
however, the spirit of emulation, the growth of riches, and the
germination of man’s natural taste for the beautiful, led to artificial
wants, which were soon converted into necessities of life. This called
out the study of art on the part of the few for the benefit of the many.
Systems of art in all its branches gradually developed themselves. By
the study of the beauties of nature such systems gradually progressed in
purity of style, and produced designs that eventually were appreciated
by the common people, in a greater or less degree, according to the
capabilities of each individual. Architecture and the other fine arts
thus, by slow but sure degrees, began to gain a hold on popular taste,
and step by step they arrived at the state of perfection of which we now
boast.
It will be evident that whilst the primary objects of architecture were
simply those of meeting the immediate necessities of life, its ultimate
purpose was only attained when it became an art, cultivated by refined
taste, an educated eye, and encouraged by the growth of civilization and
commerce. It thus advanced from a state of barbarism into one in which
it was connected with all the highest developments of the moral and
mental qualities of mankind, but especially with the æsthetic
aspirations of our nature.
Incidentally but necessarily connected with the general progress of
architecture is the great variety of styles that has been invented. The
whole of these are modifications of some one or more primaries. No two
individuals acquire the same mental impression by viewing one object;
each of their impressions is tinted by the mental characteristics of the
individual. It is, therefore, from this cause that so many varieties of
style have originated from one first model. An illustration of this is
afforded in the Gothic, which in different hands has been greatly
divided and modified in its details. This style, which at first was of
exclusive application only, has subsequently become most extensively in
use for purposes that at first sight it would have been judged as quite
unfit for.
The style of architecture just referred to is remarkable for its
picturesque character, and may fitly be adduced as an ensample of that
quality in the absence of an exact definition of the term.
An able writer criticising Gothic buildings, remarks that the outline of
the summit presents a great variety of forms of turrets and pinnacles,
some open, some fretted and variously enriched. But even where there is
an exact correspondence of parts, it is often disguised by an appearance
of splendid confusion and irregularity.
In the doors and windows of Gothic Churches, the pointed arch has as
much variety as any regular figure can well have; the eye, too, is less
strongly conducted than by the parallel lines in the Grecian style, from
the top of one aperture to that of another; and every person must be
struck with the extreme richness and intricacy of some of the principal
windows of our cathedrals and ruined abbeys. In these last is displayed
the triumph of the picturesque, and their charms to a painter’s eye are
often so great as to rival those which arise from the chaste ornaments
and the noble and elegant simplicity of Grecian architecture.
These remarks will explain to a certain degree the nature of the
picturesque in regard to architecture, so far at least as the general
principles are involved. But in the more minute points, other questions
and relations arise, to which the attention of the reader will be fully
drawn in the descriptive text and illustrations of this work.
The comparative value of Grecian and Gothic architecture, as practically
adopted in the erection of ornamental dwellings, is well discussed by an
eminent architect in the following remarks, slightly modified from the
original. He observes that the two are better distinguished by an
attention to their general effects, than to the minute parts peculiar to
each. It is in architecture as in painting--beauty depends on light and
shade, and they are caused by the openings or projections in the
surface. If these tend to produce horizontal lines, the building must be
deemed Grecian, however whimsically the doors and windows may be
constructed. If, on the contrary, the shadows give a preference to
perpendicular lines, the general character of the building will be
Gothic. This is evident from the large houses built in Queen Elizabeth’s
reign, where Grecian columns were introduced. Yet they are always
considered as Gothic buildings.
In our modern Grecian architecture large cornices are repeated, with
windows ranged perfectly in the same line, and these lines often more
strongly marked by a horizontal fascia. There are few breaks of any
great depth; and if there be a portico, the shadow made by the columns
is very trifling compared with that broad horizontal shadow proceeding
from the soffit (that is, the under side of the heads of apertures,
architraves, and the corona of cornices). The only ornament its roof
will admit, is either a flat pediment departing very little from the
horizontal, or a dome still rising from a horizontal base.
But in these remarks attention is chiefly drawn to the general
architectural effects of style, independent of concomitant
circumstances. Yet it is hardly necessary to do more than call on the
experience of any man of taste to show that position, adjacent scenery,
and other “accidental” or “incidental” matters will modify the special
effect of any style in regard to the picturesque, and also those of a
general character. A Gothic erection in a confined situation will lose
most of its beauties, while one of a Grecian character may be especially
suitable. In choosing, therefore, any design for the erection of a new
building, or alterations in one already in existence, respect should be
had to the natural character of the surrounding country, the aspects in
regard to the sun and prevalent winds, the extent of the estate or
grounds on which the building is to be erected, the views from the
various apartments, the character of wood, plain, or other adjacent
tree-scenery, and last, but of equal or greater importance, questions in
reference to domestic comfort and convenience, drainage and dry soil,
supply of water, and a variety of details, most of which will at once
suggest themselves. In many cases the choice of site is necessarily
fixed by previous purchase or inheritance of the land, yet in such cases
chances are left for a judicious selection in regard to some of the
conditions above mentioned. But when the purchase has to be effected,
_all_ the conditions should be kept in mind, and, if possible,
completely satisfied. Such details should form the subject of minute
inquiry, and they are here only named for the purpose of showing how the
choice of the best style, in regard either to general beauty or
picturesque effect, should be decided on with mature attention to all
the circumstances of the case.
Most of the old mansions, &c., of this country and many parts of
Continental Europe, have been erected in situations that were then
immediately, and at little cost, available for the purpose. At one time
the choice of such situation depended on careful attention to the
special circumstances of those who erected the building. Thus it is
found, generally, that the banks of the rivers, as affording ready and
cheap means of carriage by the stream, were mostly chosen. Hence our
abbeys, monasteries, &c., are frequently found in such localities.
Baronial castles were usually erected on hills, the height of which
tended to the security of the owners against sudden incursions of their
foes. From the varied character of English topography has arisen that
great variety of picturesque beauty that distinguishes the ruins which
abound in almost every county throughout the length and breadth of the
land; such ruins, architecturally considered in relation to the
surrounding circumstances of wood, vale, hill and dale, have become
subjects of study and suggestion to modern architects, and models,
constantly adopted at the present time, in certain details, for
producing new designs. In the selection of these, or of any other style,
however, Burke has laid down, in his essay on “The Sublime and
Beautiful,” an excellent rule: “A true artist should put a generous
deceit on the spectators, and effect the noblest designs by easy
methods. Designs that are vast only by their dimensions, are always the
sign of a common and low imagination. The work of art can be great but
as it deceives; to be otherwise is the prerogative of nature only.”
It will thus be seen, that to obtain the highest effect of the
picturesque in architecture requires an educated eye, a refined taste,
great experience, but especially a keen perception of all the
conditions, on the fulfilment of which the most successful result can be
obtained. In all there is a natural love of unity and effect.
Montesquieu, in his dissertation on _Taste_, observes: “Wherever
symmetry is useful to the soul, and may assist her functions, it is
agreeable to her; but wherever it is useless, it becomes distasteful,
because it takes away variety. Therefore things that are seen in
succession ought to have variety, for our soul has no difficulty in
seeing them; those on the contrary, that we see at one glance, ought to
have symmetry. Thus at one glance we see the front of a building, a
parterre, a temple. In such things there is always a symmetry which
pleases the soul by the facility it gives her of taking in the whole
object at once.”
The numerous dissertations, essays, &c., that have been produced on the
subjects that have here been treated on in a discursive manner only, are
a sufficient proof of the difficulty which exists in acquiring,
applying, and affording an accurate and ample description of all the
conditions necessary to picturesque architecture; they also in some
measure explain the reason of the grotesque, and even offensive results
that obtrude on refined taste in the productions of builders who are
utterly deficient of artistic taste and knowledge in carrying out their
objects. A general, and in part a historic view of architecture may
serve to show how success has been attained in many cases, and the evils
that should be avoided as leading to failure in effect of the general
and special features of an erection.
In the cursory view of the history of architecture already given, it has
been shown that the earliest efforts of the art were simply directed to
satisfy the simple wants of man, without any regard being had to taste.
It was not until riches began to accumulate in a few hands that taste in
architecture was developed, and by the few examples thus produced the
taste of society at large was educed, refined, and extended.
Omitting then any inquiry into the architecture of our earth’s
aborigines, which was evidently of the rudest character, reference may
first be made to early architectural attempts in Asia. It has been
ingeniously observed by M. Pair, that the Chinese imitated a tent as the
model of their system, a result that undoubtedly arose from the fact
that the first Tartar tribes were nomadic or wandering in their nature.
It has also been remarked that a bird’s-eye view of a Chinese city at
once suggests the idea of a fixed camp. In southern and south-western
Asia may be found, on the other hand, the remains of extensive
architectural productions in caves, such as that of the Pagoda
Elephanta, from which many have argued that subterraneous dwellings were
amongst the earliest; but it is evident that such could only be made in
places where stone existed in masses, as a basis of the country. In a
plain and sandy district, and in alluvial soil generally, such could not
possibly have been produced. There is not the least doubt that the
conditions of climate have in all cases determined the early character
of each national system. In both hot and cold countries caves would
naturally have been sought as affording shelter from the two extremes
of heat and cold. Recent geological discoveries have brought to light
the fact that the remains of human and quadruped bones have been found
together in such situations, the human inhabitants having most probably
been the predecessors of the beasts of prey, as also of the fowls of the
air. It has been suggested too that the forest tree having formerly
served for shelter, might have suggested the floral character of
columns, and the use of floral decoration generally at their summit.
In respect to these “natural” and consequently primitive “systems” of
architecture, Billington has made the following judicious
remarks:--“Those people or nations who lived by the chase (and in the
same class the Ichthyophagi, or fish-eaters, are included) could not for
a great length of time have built themselves shelters. The long courses
the hunters made prevented them from watching their property, which must
have comprised [but] few articles; and they found it more convenient to
make hollows in the rocks for their dwellings, or to profit by those
which nature offered them in its caverns. It was the same with those who
lived by fishing; passing a sedentary life on the sea shores, the sides
of rivers, or the borders of the lakes, they always made themselves such
abodes, or took advantage of those already formed by nature. The little
industry which this mode of life required, and the natural idleness
which followed it, was sufficient to induce them to prefer the dwellings
presented by nature, to those of art. This fact is proved by experience
at the present day, as these descriptions of persons continue to adopt
the same plan of life in countries where the arts of civilization have
not extended their beneficial influence. The pastors or shepherds, as
they were inhabitants of plains during a great portion of the year,
could not make use of the retreats hollowed and prepared in the
mountains and rocks by the hand of nature; being obliged to seek change
of pasture, and thus lead an ambulatory life, it was requisite to have
dwellings or shelters that could be carried with them wherever they
went, and hence originated the use of tents. But the active operations
of agriculture requiring a definite situation, necessity suggested the
propriety of building solid and fixed abodes. The agriculturist then,
living on his own grounds, and in the enjoyment of his property, had to
store his provisions; it was therefore necessary to have a habitation at
once commodious, safe, healthful, and extensive; and the wood hut with
its roof was soon erected.”
The same author considers that there is not the least certainty of this
primitive wooden construction, with its inclined roof, having been the
universal model of all nations, but especially in regard to Egypt and
China. The peculiarities of the early Chinese style of architecture have
been already named, and with the persistent continuity in one course yet
prevalent, that style is still preserved. But the Grecian style was
evidently founded on the rude model, and the ingenuity of that nation
eventually led to the transference of material from wood to stone.
At the present day the Orders of Grecian architecture are fundamental to
the principles of modern art in numerous varieties of detail; they have
survived the prejudices, fancies, and dicta of various schools of art,
although, as already shown, the Gothic and other systems have become
formidable competitors, and in many cases, especially in regard to the
picturesque, efficient, elegant, and ornamental substitutes. The taste
for the latter characteristic has led to an increased adoption, for
example, of the Italian style, which in many respects resembles the
Grecian, but differs from it especially in lightness of detail, with
greater variety. The author just quoted traces the origin of the Doric
Order of the Greeks to a primary adaptation of the trunks of trees as
external supports of the wooden dwelling, seeing in them the
foreshadowing of the column designative of that order. “As trees are of
greater circumference at their lower extremities, and diminish in
rising, the diminution of the column was suggested by them.... These
timbers (as supports) consisting of trunks of trees planted in the
ground, offered not as yet the idea of bases and pedestals, as is seen
in the Doric Order, which is without base. But in the course of time the
inconvenience of this method was perceived, as it exposed the wood to
rot, and to remedy this inconvenience pieces of wood were placed under
each support to give it a better foundation, and to protect it from
humidity. This practice may be traced in some of the ancient edifices in
which the columns have no other base than a block of stone. But
afterwards, the number of pieces of wood employed for the base was
increased, in order to give greater elevation to the supports, or to
effect better security against the effects of humidity. From this
multiplication of blocks as footings, sprung the _torus_ and other
mouldings of the base, an origin far more probable than that of
ligaments of iron, as imagined by Scamozzi and others. It is also more
conformable to the nature of capitals, in which it is known that the
same proceeding was employed. After beginning with a simple abacus,
several others were afterwards added, which were enlarged, as they rose,
one above another, in such a manner that as the base was to the column a
kind of footing on which it rested more solidly, so the capital made a
head more capable of receiving and supporting the weight and form of the
architrave, a large beam placed horizontally on perpendicular supports,
and destined to receive the covering of the whole edifice.”
The author goes on, in a similarly ingenious manner, to prove the
derivation, from nature, of the Orders of Grecian architecture. He
ascribes the form of the roof as having necessarily suggested that of
the pediment. On this point he quotes the remark of Cicero: “It is not
to pleasure that we are indebted for the pediment of the Capitol and
those of our temples: necessity suggested the form for the better
draining off the water; nevertheless, its beauty is so very great, and
it is become so necessary for edifices, that if a Capitol were to be
built in Olympus, where it was never known to rain, it would,
notwithstanding, be necessary to give it a pediment.”
The preceding remarks and ingenious theory amply justify the opinion
already suggested, that nature must be the foundation of every true
principle of art. Assuming, as we are compelled to do, that the Grecian
style as a whole was original, the only perfect model that could have
been selected was that afforded by natural objects, in all of which are
found the most perfect results, derived from few means but answering an
infinity of ends. It will be remembered that the construction of the
Eddystone lighthouse was based in regard to durability, and resistance
to the force of the waves, on those properties which are possessed by
any kind of tree exposed to the full force of the tempest. “Nature
ought to be the basis of all imitation.”
Proceeding from the teachings of nature, the Greeks learned gradually to
introduce new types, consistent in the main with the original mode, but
of great variety in detail. By further refinement of this, but close
adherence to the facts or the analogies of nature, the Grecian art
became developed in the invention of other Orders, the names of which
are sufficiently known to all interested in architecture. Limited space
prevents our entering into a class of analyses of the characteristics of
each. Little doubt exists of the Doric Order having been the first
produced, and following it were the Ionic, Corinthian, Composite, and
Tuscan, which constitute the five Orders in general of architecture.
Perhaps the best epoch of ancient architecture was that during which,
subsequent to the battle of Marathon, the Greeks commenced to rebuild
the remains of Persian buildings, and to re-construct Athens. The ruins
of this period yet with us, attest the advance which Grecian
architectural art had attained. The ingenuity and refinement of Greek
art gradually spread to Rome, the Romans adopting the Doric Order under
the modification known as the Tuscan. The art having been introduced
into Etruria by the Pelasgi, under the celebrated Augustus, Rome
attained that magnificence which has ever since rendered its name
famous as a seat of the arts. Amongst the great erections of this period
was the Pantheon, one of the grandest efforts of genius that the world
has yet known. Under subsequent emperors architecture also progressed,
and the name of Trajan is identified with the erection of triumphal
arches, &c., the ruins of which still receive the admiration of every
qualified judge in art.
The removal of the seat of Roman government to Byzantium led to the
decadence of art at Rome, which was completed by the incursions of the
Visigoths. Eventually the Gothic style arose, phœnix-like, from the
ruins of Grecian and Roman art, and obtained a place that has rendered
it ever since one of the most favourite styles of architecture.
Just as under the heathens, the art had been chiefly promoted by
erections for religious purposes, so when the Christians began to obtain
the ascendancy, the erection of churches led to a similar result. From
the fourth to the seventh century some magnificent buildings of this
kind were erected. At the commencement of the eleventh century the
church of St. Mark at Venice attested the wonderful progress which
architecture had made, and it continued to progress during the next two
or three centuries, being confined chiefly, however, to Italy. But the
Gothic style, suited to a northern clime, never obtained full hold
there; Italy cannot boast of a single pure Gothic edifice. Gradually the
new style spread over Europe. The Cathedral at Strasbourg, the Louvre at
Paris, suggested improvements in our own country at Windsor Castle,
Oxford, &c., all indicated the rapid extension of the Gothic style or
its modifications. But in numerous instances the taste that was
exhibited showed a decadence from the simplicity and grandeur of the
Grecian and Latin styles. In respect to the latter, indeed, the
materials of the new erections were obtained from the ruins of the
ancient edifices, the columns, &c. there found, being pressed into the
service, in any manner, of the new school of architects.
Towards the middle of the fifteenth century a revival in architectural
art took place, especially under Brunelleschi. The patronage of the
Medici added a stimulus to the progress thus initiated. Improvements
were introduced in the erection of private residences in most parts of
Western Europe, the art having in its best form been chiefly till then
directed to building edifices for religious purposes alone. In the
sixteenth century architecture in Rome attained a perfection nearly
equal to that it had formerly enjoyed under the Cæsars, especially
during the Augustan age. Private and public buildings were erected of
great magnificence, yet of simplicity of form combined with grandeur.
Under Vignola architecture attained great excellence. Michael Angelo
was appointed architect of St. Peter’s at Rome about the middle of the
sixteenth century, and the mention of his name alone is sufficient to
call to mind the extent and value of his labours in the art. In the
seventeenth century, about the year 1620, Inigo Jones was engaged in
repairing St. Paul’s Cathedral in London, and subsequently produced
designs for the Royal Palace at Whitehall in the reign of Charles I.
Greenwich and Chelsea Hospitals, and other noted buildings, were
designed about this period. In France and other continental countries
architecture attained great perfection at this period, both in respect
to public and private buildings. Among the most eminent architects of a
period somewhat nearer to our own time, was Sir Christopher Wren, whose
St. Paul’s Cathedral serves as a monument to the great genius of that
eminent man. This era may, comparatively speaking, be considered as the
commencement of the modern style of English church architecture,
inasmuch as several productions of Wren are still used for the purposes
to which they were first applied, having undergone little or no change
since their completion.
Such is a brief, and necessarily very imperfect resumé of the progress
of architecture. The styles of Eastern Europe, ancient Mexico, and many
others, have not been described, because unnecessary, in this
Introduction, which has only for its object to call general attention
to the causes which have led to the present state of the art. Like all
others it has been the subject of alternating prosperity and adversity.
At one time fostered by men eminent in their profession, and by those
whose means permitted them to lavish riches on magnificent piles,
fountains, villas, &c.; and at others, degraded by its students, and
neglected by those who should have been its patrons.
In all branches of architecture direct reference should be had to the
objects for which the building is intended. An eminent architect,
already quoted, has well set forth this essential point in the following
remarks:--“The art of characterizing, that is to say, of rendering
evident by material forms the intellectual qualities and moral ideas
required to express in edifices, or to make known by the harmony and
suitableness of all the constituent parts that enter into their
composition the use for which they are intended, is perhaps of all the
secrets of architecture the most difficult to develope or to attain.
This happy talent of conceiving and of communicating the conception in
the physiognomy suitable to each edifice; this sure and delicate
discernment, which exhibits the distinguishing parts of such edifices,
that at first appear susceptible of no characteristic distinctions; this
judicious employment of the different styles which are as the tones of
architecture; this skilful application of the signs which the art
employs to affect the sight and understanding; this exquisite feeling,
which errs neither in the just disposition of the masses and employment
of the details, nor in the just dispensation of richness and simplicity,
and which is able to combine true expression of character with the
harmonious accord of all the qualities susceptible of being represented
by architecture--all this requisite talent, which study perfects, but
does not produce, is a gift possessed by few. This suitable expression
presents itself under two relations, the one appertaining to
architecture in general, and the other to edifices in particular. The
first consists in the expression of the qualities or intellectual ideas
which are the results of the art metaphysically considered; the second,
in the true indication of the uses for which edifices are designed, that
is, in considering architecture as a certain mode of expressing or
painting. This expression, according to the nature of the buildings and
edifices, may be produced by the gradation of richness and greatness
proportionate to the nature and the object for which they are erected;
by the indication of the moral qualities attached to each edifice, the
manner of expressing which is beyond the reach of rules; by the general
and particular form of architecture; by the species of the construction
and the quality of the materials that may be employed in the execution;
and lastly, by the resources of decoration.” In these remarks will be
found a highly valuable _précis_ of the excellence to which the art of
the architect should be directed, and the means that must be adopted to
obtain pleasing and successful results.
The erection of country mansions, villas, and other residences, has of
late years been greatly stimulated in our country. The enormous annually
accumulated savings of the commercial portion of the community have
induced a large amount of capital to be invested in such objects. In
regard to questions of taste and decoration, it should be borne in mind
that but very little extra cost is incurred in building a residence in a
pleasing and picturesque style than in one having not the least
pretension to architectural beauty. In our earlier remarks on the nature
of the picturesque the _general principles_ of obtaining that effect
have been pointed out. In the following pages the special details are
amply descanted on, and illustrated by designs, drawings, &c. It is the
object of every department of constructive skill at the present day, to
endeavour to obtain the best possible result by the least possible
expenditure of material, and thus taste actually causes economy rather
than increased expense. Tons of heavy and unsightly materials are now
replaced by hundredweights of decorative, and yet substantial, masonry
and iron work. A number of modern elegant erections, affording
accommodation equal in extent, but vastly superior in quality, are now
made at an expenditure of stone or brick less by one-third in quantity
than was employed in many old houses; those in High Street, Edinburgh,
by way of example. The result has been arrived at by the joint aid of
science and art, the former giving data as to the strength of the
material, and the latter directing its disposal. The peculiar character
of English scenery is exactly adapted for giving a picturesque character
to villa residences, provided the latter are designed and erected in
accordance with the principles of sound taste. Surely he who would spend
money in building a house, in which all or most of the remainder of his
days are to be spent, will not grudge making that dwelling the subject
of decoration or ornamental art, by which its aspect shall at all times
be suggestive of pleasure rather than of aversion or disgust. It has
been said that most individuals, by long association together, acquire a
mutuality of tastes and even physical resemblance. It cannot be denied
that even inanimate objects, such as our dwellings, furniture,
landscapes, gardens, and other such surroundings, have a parallel effect
on us. Hence the wisdom of using all the means which architectural art
places at our disposal. Errors in this respect often proceed from
thoughtlessness, if not from want of refined taste. An instance may
suffice to show how much such matters should be attended to in the
choice of a site and other conditions. A retired manufacturer erected a
mansion at a cost exceeding fifty thousand pounds, and had never paid
any heed to the fact that the most prominent object seen from his
dining-room window was the cemetery of the adjacent town! Soon this
became unbearable, and the house has been comparatively deserted by the
family, caused by an oversight that the least consideration would have
remedied.
The designs given in the following pages have for their object to
suggest the most approved, tasteful, and effective plans for the
mansion, the villa, or cottage, and great care has been devoted to their
production. Whilst a residence must necessarily be kept within a cost
suitable to the means of the proprietor, by judicious care of the
professional man, possessed of a competent knowledge, a little money may
go a long way in the decorative art. Many of the drawings are devoted to
the minor but not less effective portions of the house. Congruity in
detail inside the dwelling is equally required with symmetry, beauty, or
picturesque character of the exterior. Want of judgment in this point
may speedily convert the most elegant building into little better than a
repository for gewgaws selected without taste and arranged without
skill. It is impossible for _every_ man to become his own architect; but
it is possible, in most cases, for all who have the means, to select
such a design as shall best comport with their taste, leaving the
working out of details to the architect. But a remote possibility exists
of an unprofessional being able even to state what he requires, and
should he ask an architect for a design or plan, it is more than likely
that the latter would fail to please. When, however, a variety of
designs is placed before the eye of any intelligent person the act of
selection becomes easy. Although no single plan may succeed, a
combination may suggest itself, and the architect can then readily work
on something like a sound foundation, and with the hope of success. This
work is intended to supply such requirements.
Again, in building a house, or in effecting alterations in an old one,
points apparently of minor, but really of great importance, require
attention. A badly constructed chimney will make the whole house
miserable, independent of the injury done to furniture, decorations,
&c., and the destruction of paint and paperhangings. A defective
drainage may render that which was intended to be an abode of peace,
plenty, and happiness, a living charnel-house, or the door to the grave!
A question of vital importance is that of ventilation. These apparently
minor questions can therefore scarcely be exaggerated in their value,
for neglect of them will render nugatory the best external efforts of
the architect. Hence they have hereafter full attention, in their
practical details, directed to them.
On the general principles of ventilation the following remarks may be of
value to all who propose to erect new dwellings, or alter those already
inhabited. In all houses, and in fact every building divided into
stories, a ready means of ventilation may be insured, or rather always
exists. This is presented in the opening formed by the staircase. Into
this general opening communications can be made into, and from, each
apartment by apertures placed in some convenient position in each room.
The grand law on which ventilation depends is, that hot air, being
lighter than cool air, has a universal tendency to rise, whilst cold air
takes the lowest part of a house or apartment. It hence follows, that if
a supply of cold air be admitted by an opening at the lower part of a
house, and it becomes heated within the house, it will have a tendency
to rise to the roof; and if a sufficient opening be there provided, it
will escape into the open air. Consequently a constant current may thus
be obtained in any dwelling, sufficient to give a supply of pure air and
to remove that which has been vitiated by breathing, the combustion of
fires, and other causes. The heavy atmosphere of this country requires
assistance to make this grand law operative; to cause the air of a room
to move as readily as it is required, forced ventilation becomes
necessary. The English fireplace provides this; and to that it owes,
with us, its extreme popularity. A constant current of air from the room
is heated and passed up the chimney flue, and this draws in a
corresponding supply of cold air, and proper and convenient apertures
should be left to permit this to enter. The fireplace forces attention
to the necessity; if sufficient fresh air be not provided for it the
smoke enters the room and drives the occupants out. Notwithstanding the
attention that has been paid to the stove and its flue, we are still
sadly behindhand in a proper construction of them. The flues could be so
arranged that a building might be enabled, using a figurative
expression, to breathe, whenever its principal flue, that of the kitchen
fireplace, was in action; a construction to effect this will be
illustrated in the text. In conclusion on this point, it may be added
that nothing is more essential to the health and comfort of a house than
that it should be thoroughly and constantly ventilated, and if any
portion is to be particularized, it should be the sleeping apartments.
Another question which, to a certain extent, should influence the
arrangement of a house of any pretensions in respect to size, is that of
the method of warming it. The preference, or rather prejudice, in favour
of fireplaces is so great, that a revolution of the nation in political
matters could be more easily brought about than the abolition of the
fire-grate; but it is well known that at least three-fourths of the coal
consumed is wasted in the attempt to heat the room to an equable and
pleasant temperature. But by such means the result cannot be arrived at.
In front of, and close to the fire, the temperature is excessive, while
the backs of the sitters facing in are suffering from cold. An equalized
temperature in rooms is obtained abroad. In Russia, a plan is adopted of
heating the rooms by means of the walls, the latter being double, and so
arranged that they act as flues to a furnace situated at the lower part
of the building. By this method every part of the room acquires,
simultaneously, an equable temperature. There need be no draught, simply
because the air is not drawn in one direction more than in another. From
every side a gentle current of warm air arises. This method cannot be
adopted here; it would not suit for English houses where coal is used as
fuel: the interstices of the double wall would soon be filled with soot.
The same effect is produced in a far more elegant way, by means of
warm-water pipes passed round the room; by this simple process the
staircase and passages and the sides of a room distant from the
fireplace are made of equal temperature--one, or at most two furnaces,
burning coke and making no smoke, if placed in a cellar outside an
extensive building, can render the whole interior, from attic to
ground-floor of equal temperature, and not prevent the action of the
fireplace, or its agreeable presence in our homes. In the British
Museum, where warming apparatus is used, the temperature of the whole is
kept uniformly the same, that is, 65° Fah., even throughout the most
severe weather, independent of the common fireplace. No greater change
is required in any part of our buildings than in the latter; not that it
requires to be removed, but a change to prevent its waste of heat and
its contaminating the outside air with the soot and blacks from its coal
fuel; the lower fireplaces in a building should warm or air the upper
rooms, and no soot or blacks should be allowed to leave the flues. A
construction for this purpose will be shown in the ensuing pages, as
well as one for warming an entire building and a conservatory.