THE CABINET AND THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS
=The Cabinet.=--The heads of the ten executive departments collectively
constitute the President's cabinet. They are, in the order of rank, the
secretary of state (first styled the secretary of foreign affairs), the
secretary of the treasury, the secretary of war, the attorney-general,
the postmaster-general, the secretary of the navy, the secretary of the
interior, the secretary of agriculture, the secretary of commerce, and
the secretary of labor. They are appointed by the President with the
consent of the senate, which in practice is never refused; and they may
be dismissed by him at any time. The salary of cabinet members is
$12,000 a year.
=Origin and Nature of the Cabinet.=--There was no thought in the
beginning that the heads of departments should constitute a cabinet or
advisory council to the President, and during the first administration
they were never, as a matter of fact, convened by him for collective
consultation. When their opinions or advice were desired they were
requested by written communication. During his second term, however,
President Washington adopted the practice of assembling the heads of
departments occasionally for consultation not only on matters pertaining
to their particular departments but in regard to questions of general
executive policy. Thus the cabinet meeting became a regular feature of
executive procedure, and the cabinet a permanent institution. It is
well to remember, however, that the cabinet as such is not mentioned in
the Constitution, and the name "cabinet" never appeared in any law until
the year 1907. No record is kept of its proceedings.
_Cabinet Responsibility._--Unlike a European cabinet, the members of the
President's cabinet are not, and cannot be, members of either house of
Congress; they have no seats in Congress; they are not responsible to
Congress for their policies, and they never think of resigning when
Congress refuses to carry out their recommendations or to approve their
official acts. They are responsible solely to the President for their
official conduct, and are subject to his direction, except in so far as
their duties are prescribed by law. They are, in short, the ministers of
the President, not of Congress; administrative chiefs, not parliamentary
leaders. It may happen, therefore, that members of the cabinet, like the
President, may belong to the party which is in the minority in
Congress.[86]
[86] There is little resemblance between the American cabinet and a
European ministry. In foreign countries where the parliamentary system
prevails, cabinet ministers are chosen from the party having control of
the Parliament; they are usually members of Parliament, but whether
they are or not they are entitled to seats therein; and they prepare
and introduce all important legislative measures, urge their adoption
by the Parliament, and defend their political policies and acts
whenever they are attacked. To one or both of the legislative chambers
they are responsible for their political acts, and whenever they cease
to command the support of the chamber to which they are responsible
they must resign and make way for a new cabinet which does possess its
confidence. It is thus impossible for the legislative and executive
departments of the government to be antagonistic.
=The Department of State.=--At the head of the department of state is
the secretary of state, who is the ranking member of the cabinet and the
first in line for the presidency in case of the death or removal of
both President and Vice President. He sits at the right hand of the
President at cabinet meetings and is given precedence over his
colleagues on occasions of ceremony. There are also three assistant
secretaries in the department, and a counselor, who advises the
President and Secretary of State in regard to questions of international
law.
The duties of the secretary of state fall into three groups: first, he
is the custodian of the great seal and of the archives of the United
States. In this capacity he receives the acts and resolutions of
Congress, publishes them in certain papers, and preserves the originals.
Under this head also fall the duties of countersigning proclamations and
important commissions of the President and of attaching thereto the
great seal. In the second place, the secretary of state is the organ of
communication between the national government and the state governments.
Thus an application from the governor of a state for troops to suppress
domestic violence, or a request for the extradition of a criminal who
has taken refuge in a foreign country, is made through the secretary of
state. In the third place, the secretary of state is the organ of
communication between the United States and foreign powers, that is, he
is the minister of foreign affairs. He carries on all correspondence
with foreign governments, negotiates treaties, countersigns warrants for
the extradition of fugitives from the justice of foreign countries,
issues passports to American citizens wishing to travel abroad, and
grants exequaturs to foreign consuls in the United States.
=The Diplomatic Service.=--For purposes of administration the department
of state is organized into a number of bureaus and divisions. _The
Diplomatic Bureau_ prepares diplomatic correspondence with foreign
governments, and has charge of the engrossing of treaties and other
formal papers, the preparation of the credentials of diplomatic
representatives, and of ceremonious letters. The United States
government is now represented at the governments of nearly fifty
different foreign countries by diplomatic representatives, and most of
these governments maintain diplomatic representatives at Washington. Our
representatives to Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia,
Austria-Hungary, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Brazil, Turkey, Spain, Argentina,
and Chile bear the rank of ambassador. The government is represented at
most of the other countries by envoys extraordinary and ministers
plenipotentiary; but to one country (Liberia) it sends a minister
resident. The principal difference between the different classes of
ministers is one of rank and precedence. At the more important foreign
posts the ambassador or minister is provided with from one to three
secretaries. There are also interpreters at the legations in Oriental
countries, and at all the important foreign capitals military and naval
attachés are attached to the legation.
_Elimination of the Spoils System._--The efficiency of the diplomatic
service has been much impaired by the existence of the spoils system, as
a result of which diplomatic appointments are determined largely by
political considerations, and changes are made by each new
administration. In the administrations of Presidents Roosevelt and Taft,
however, a beginning was made toward the introduction of the merit
system into the diplomatic service.
_Duties of Diplomatic Representatives._--The principal duties of
diplomatic representatives are to watch over the interests of their
country and its citizens in the country to which they are accredited and
to see that they receive proper protection, to present and cause to be
settled all claims against the foreign country in which they reside, to
negotiate treaties, to settle disputes and adjust difficulties, to
promote friendly relations, and, in general, to represent their
government in its relations with the government to which they are
accredited. It is also the duty of a diplomatic representative to keep
his government fully informed on all matters in which it is likely to be
interested. He is expected to transmit reports relating to political
conditions, finance, commerce, agriculture, arts and science, systems of
taxation, population, judicial statistics, new inventions, and other
matters of possible interest to his government.
The procedure by which treaties are negotiated may take either of two
courses: the secretary of state may conduct the negotiations with a
foreign minister at Washington, or he may direct the American minister
in the foreign country with which it is desired to treat to negotiate
with the minister of foreign affairs of that government.[87]
[87] The following description of the procedure observed in drawing up,
signing, and ratifying treaties is given by Mr. Van Dyne in his book
entitled "Our Foreign Service," pp. 9-10:
"When the terms of a treaty are agreed upon, two exact copies are
engrossed at the Department of State, and signed by the Secretary and
the foreign minister. Where the two countries have not a common language
the texts in the two languages are engrossed in parallel columns. In
drawing up treaties this government adheres to the 'alternat,' by which
in the copy of the treaty to be retained by this government, the United
States is named first, and our plenipotentiary signs first. In the copy
to be retained by the foreign government that government is named first
and its plenipotentiary signs first. The seal of each plenipotentiary is
placed after his signature. Two narrow pieces of red, white and blue
striped silk ribbon are laid across the page, some hot wax is dropped on
the document at the place where the impression of the seal is to be
made, and the seals are placed on this, the ribbon thus fastened to the
seals being used to bind the pages of the instrument. When the treaty is
ratified, a day is fixed and the plenipotentiaries meet and exchange
ratifications. The ratification is attached to the instrument. When the
ratification is completed, proclamation of the fact and publication of
the text are made simultaneously at the capitals of each nation, upon a
day agreed upon."
=The Consular Service.=--_The Consular Bureau_ in the department of
state has charge of the correspondence with our consular officers in
foreign countries. A consul differs from a diplomatic representative in
being a commercial rather than a political representative. Consuls are
stationed at all important commercial centers in foreign countries, to
look after the commercial interests of their country, promote foreign
trade, watch over shipping and navigation, administer the estates of
American citizens dying abroad, assist in the administration of our
customs, health, navigation, immigration, and naturalization laws, and
to collect such information concerning the trade, industries, and
markets of foreign countries as may be of value to the commercial
interests of the United States.[88]
[88] In certain Oriental countries, notably China, Morocco, Persia,
Siam, and Turkey, the United States consuls, by virtue of treaty
arrangements, exercise jurisdiction over American citizens in both
civil and criminal cases. They are empowered to try Americans for
offenses committed within their districts and to determine all civil
controversies between citizens of the United States residing therein.
In more serious criminal cases and in civil cases involving large
amounts, appeals may be taken to the American minister. The reason why
Western powers refuse to permit their citizens to be tried by the
courts of these countries is that their standards of law and procedure
are repugnant to those of Western countries. Formerly consular
jurisdiction existed in Japan also, but it was abolished by treaty in
1899.
=Recent Reforms.=--In obedience to the widespread demands of the
commercial interests of the country, notable improvements have recently
been made in our consular service. Formerly political considerations
largely determined appointments to the service, and at the beginning of
each new administration a wholesale removal was made in order to find
places for party workers. By acts of Congress passed in 1906 and 1909,
however, the service was reorganized and attempts made to place it on a
merit basis. The fee system was abolished, consuls were prohibited from
practicing law or engaging in other businesses, provision was made for
periodic inspection of consulates, and a system of examinations was
inaugurated for determining the qualifications of appointees to the
service. The adoption of these reforms has brought about a marked
increase in the efficiency of the service and has tended to give to it
the character of a permanent professional career such as it enjoys in
Europe.
=Other Bureaus of the State Department.=--_The Bureau of Indexes and
Archives_ is charged with keeping the records and indexing the
correspondence of the department of state. It also prepares the annual
volumes of the foreign relations, containing portions of the diplomatic
correspondence.
_The Division of Passport Control_ is charged with the issue of
passports to persons who desire to travel abroad. A passport is a paper
signed by the secretary of state certifying that the bearer is a citizen
of the United States or has declared his intention of becoming a
citizen, and is entitled to the protection of the government when
traveling abroad. They are granted not only to citizens but, by a recent
law, to loyal residents of the insular possessions and to aliens who
have declared their intention of becoming citizens and have resided in
the United States for three years. A fee of one dollar is charged for
each passport.
_The other bureaus and divisions_ in the department of state are:
accounts, rolls and library, appointments, information, Far Eastern
affairs, Near Eastern affairs, Western European affairs, and
Latin-American affairs.
=The Department of the Treasury.=--For the most part the department of
the treasury is concerned with the management of the national finances,
including (1) the administration of the revenue laws, (2) the custody of
the national funds, (3) the preparation of the budget, (4) the
administration of the currency and national banking laws, (5)
miscellaneous functions such as those relating to the life-saving
service, the public health and marine hospital service, engraving and
printing, construction of public buildings, etc.
The custody of the government funds devolves upon the _Treasurer_, who
is charged with receiving and disbursing upon proper warrant all public
moneys that may be deposited in the treasury at Washington or in the
subtreasuries at New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Chicago,
St. Louis, New Orleans, and San Francisco, as well as in national banks
and federal reserve banks. He is also the custodian of miscellaneous
trust funds, is the agent of the government for paying interest on the
public debt and for issuing and redeeming government paper currency and
national bank notes, and is the custodian of the bonds deposited to
secure national bank circulation.
_The Register of the Treasury_ issues and signs all bonds of the United
States, registers bond transfers and redemption of bonds, and signs
transfers of public funds from the treasury to the subtreasuries or
depositories.
_The Commissioner of Internal Revenue_ supervises the collection of the
federal income tax and of the taxes on the manufacture of tobacco, etc.,
and supervises the enforcement of the prohibition law.
_The Director of the Budget_, provided for by the new budget act of
1921, prepares for the President the annual budget and all other
estimates of revenues and expenditures, and with that end in view, has
power to assemble, correlate, revise, reduce, or increase the estimates
of the several departments or establishments. The President is, however,
directly responsible for the budget, and transmits it to Congress. By
the same act, the office of _Comptroller of the Treasury_ was abolished,
and the auditing and accounting functions were removed from the Treasury
Department to an independent General Accounting Office, with the
_Comptroller-General of the United States_ at its head.
The principal officers who have to do with currency administration are
the director of the mint and the comptroller of the currency. _The
Director of the Mint_ has general supervision of the administration of
the coinage laws and the management of the coinage and assay offices.[89]
_The Comptroller of the Currency_ exercises supervision over the
national banks. It is his duty to see that national banks are properly
organized, that the capital stock is fully subscribed and paid in, that
the necessary amount of United States bonds have been duly deposited
with the government to secure the circulation of their notes, and that
all national banks are properly examined from time to time. He also has
important duties in connection with the management of the federal
reserve banks. He has charge of the issue of national bank notes and
(under the supervision the Federal Reserve Board) of Federal reserve
notes.
[89] For a list of the mints and assay offices, see pp. 228-229.
Among the bureaus of the treasury department which have no direct
relation to the public finances the most important is the _Public Health
Service_, which is under the direction of a surgeon general who is
charged with the supervision of the national quarantine stations and of
hospitals for the relief of sick and disabled seamen, and discharged
soldiers, sailors, and marines. He calls conferences of all state health
boards. He is authorized to adopt regulations to prevent the
introduction and spread of contagious diseases, and it is his duty to
supervise the medical examination of immigrants seeking admission to the
United States.
_The Coast Guard_, as organized in 1915, is charged with the duties of
the former _life-saving service_ and the _revenue cutter service_. It
renders assistance to persons and vessels in distress, patrols the coast
for the purpose of preventing violations of the customs laws, and
enforces the laws relating to quarantine, navigation, protection of the
game, fishery, and seal industries, etc. It constitutes a part of the
military forces and is under the treasury department in time of peace
and under the navy department in time of war.
_The Supervising Architect_ is charged with the selection and purchase
of sites for government buildings, such as federal courthouses,
post-office buildings, customhouses, mints, etc.; with the preparation
of plans and specifications and the awarding of contracts for such
buildings.
_The Bureau of Engraving and Printing_ is charged with the duty of
engraving and printing all government securities, including United
States notes, bonds, certificates, national bank notes, federal reserve
notes, internal revenue, customs, and postage stamps, treasury drafts,
etc.
_The Secret Service Division_ is a body of detective agents employed to
detect frauds and crimes against the government, such as counterfeiting
or espionage. Some of the force are also employed in guarding the
President.
_The Bureau of War Risk Insurance_ (created in 1914) is charged with
carrying out the laws relating to government insurance of American
ships, soldiers, and sailors.
_The Federal Reserve Board_ and the _Federal Farm Loan Board_ (see p.
234) are also under the Treasury Department.
=The War Department.=--The secretary of war has charge of all matters
relating to national defense and seacoast fortifications, river and
harbor improvements, the prevention of obstructions to navigation, and
the establishment of harbor lines; and all plans and locations, of
bridges authorized by Congress to be constructed over navigable rivers
require his approval.
The army is under the direction of the _General Staff_ described on p.
263. Within the war department there are also a number of departments
and bureaus, each under the direction of an army officer.
_The Adjutant General_ has charge of the records and correspondence of
the army and militia; of the recruiting service, including enlistments,
appointments, promotions, resignations, etc. He communicates to
subordinate officers the orders of the President and the secretary of
war, and preserves reports of military movements and operations.
_The Inspector General_, with his assistants, visits and inspects
military posts, depots, fortifications, armories and arsenals, and
public works in charge of army officers, and makes reports on the
conduct, efficiency, and discipline of officers and men, including their
arms and equipment.
_The Quartermaster General_ has supervision over the quartermaster corps
which is the main supply service of the army (except for technical
articles), and furnishes food, clothing, equipment, animals, and forage.
It also has charge of building construction and transportation for the
army.
_The Chief of Finance_ has control over the finances of the army.
_The Surgeon General_ has supervision over the medical service of the
army; looks after the sick and wounded; provides medical and hospital
supplies, and inquires into the sanitary conditions of the army. In
addition to field hospitals permanent depots and hospitals are
maintained at various points.
_The Judge-Advocate General_ is the chief law officer of the army; he
reviews records of the proceedings of courts-martial, courts of inquiry,
and military commissions, and acts as legal adviser to the war
department.
_The Chief Signal Officer_ is charged with the supervision of military
signal duties, the construction, repair, and operation of military
telegraph lines and cables.
_The Chief of the Air Service_ has supervision over aircraft production
and the aviation service.
_The Chief of Ordnance_ supervises the purchase, manufacture, and
distribution of artillery, small arms, and ammunition for the army and
the militia. For the manufacture of arms and ammunition there are
arsenals at Springfield, Mass., Rock Island, Ill., Watervliet, N. Y.,
and elsewhere.
_The Chief of Engineers_ is at the head of the engineering corps, a
branch of the army which is charged with the construction of public
works such as military roads, bridges, fortifications, river and harbor
improvements, geographical explorations, and surveys. The construction
of the Panama Canal is the most notable of the recent undertakings of
the war department in this field.
_The Chief of the Chemical Warfare Service_ has supervision over the
production of chemical warfare materials as well as defensive appliances
for protection against such warfare. He also supervises the training of
the army in the use of both.
_The Militia Bureau_, created in 1916, has charge of all matters
relating to the National Guard.
In addition to the purely military functions and construction of public
works, the war department has certain duties in connection with the
government of the insular possessions and the Panama Canal Zone. So far
as these duties relate to Porto Rico and the Philippine Islands they are
under the direction of the _Bureau of Insular Affairs_, at the head of
which is an army officer with the title of chief of the bureau. This
bureau also has charge of the collection of the revenues of Haiti and
the Dominican Republic in accordance with treaties which practically
establish an American receivership over those republics.
Finally, the war department has charge of the _United States Military
Academy_ at West Point, the various post-graduate schools of instruction
for army officers located at different army posts, the national military
parks at Chickamauga, Gettysburg, Shiloh, and Vicksburg, and the
national cemeteries in various parts of the country. The military
academy at West Point was founded in 1802. A certain number of cadets
(the number--for a long time one only--has varied at different periods)
are appointed from each congressional district and territory, upon the
nomination of the representative in Congress from the district; also
certain numbers from each state at large, from the District of Columbia,
and from the United States at large. All candidates are required to pass
a physical and intellectual examination; the course of instruction lasts
four years; and each cadet receives pay sufficient for his maintenance.
Graduates receive appointments as second lieutenants in the army, those
standing highest usually being appointed to the engineering corps if
they prefer assignment to that branch of the service. The secretary of
war exercises general supervision over the academy, and it is inspected
at regular intervals by a board of visitors of whom seven are appointed
by the President, two by the Vice President, and three by the speaker of
the house of representatives.
[Illustration: WEST POINT CADETS]
[Illustration: LOCK IN THE PANAMA CANAL]
=The Department of the Navy= was created in 1798. At its head is a
secretary, who, like the head of the war department, is usually taken
from civil life. Like the war department, the navy department is
organized into the _Office of Naval Operations_ and a number of bureaus.
_The Bureau of Navigation_ has charge of the recruiting service, the
training of officers and men, the naval academy; schools for the
technical education of enlisted men, apprentice schools, the naval home
at Philadelphia, transportation of enlisted men, records of squadrons,
ships, officers and men; the preparation of the naval register,
preparation of drill regulations, signal codes, and cipher codes. Under
this bureau falls the publication of the Nautical Almanac, charts and
sailing directions, the naval observatory, and the hydrographic office.
_The Bureau of Yards and Docks_ has general control of the navy yards
and docks belonging to the government, including their construction and
repair, and also of the construction of battleships whenever such
construction is authorized by Congress. The navy yards are located at
Washington, Brooklyn, Mare Island (California), Philadelphia (League
Island), Norfolk, Pensacola, Cavite (in the Philippines), and various
other places.
_The Bureau of Ordnance_ has charge of the supply of armament and
ammunition for the ships. It supervises the manufacture of guns and
torpedoes, installs armament on the vessels, and has charge of the naval
proving ground and magazines, the naval gun factory, and the torpedo
station.
_The Bureau of Construction and Repair_ has charge of the planning,
building, and repairing of vessels, and of their equipment, excepting
their armament and engines.
_Other Bureaus_ of the Navy Department, whose general duties are
indicated sufficiently by their titles, are: the bureau of engineering,
the bureau of medicine and surgery, and the bureau of supplies and
accounts.
_The Judge-Advocate General_ is the law officer of the navy department
and performs duties similar to those of the judge-advocate general of
the war department.
_The Major General Commandant of the Marine Corps_ issues orders for the
movement of troops under the direction of the secretary of the navy.
The department of the navy also has general charge of the _United States
Naval Academy_ at Annapolis. The academy was founded in 1846, by George
Bancroft, then secretary of the navy. A specified number of midshipmen
are allowed for each member of Congress and each territorial delegate,
and certain numbers from the District of Columbia, from Porto Rico, and
from the United States at large.[90] Appointments are made by the
President after a physical and intellectual examination by a board, and
an allowance is made for maintaining each midshipman while in residence
at the academy. The course lasts four years and includes instruction in
gunnery, naval construction, steam engineering, navigation, mathematics,
international law, modern languages, etc. After the completion of the
course, midshipmen spend two years at sea, after which they receive
subordinate appointments in the navy or marine corps.
[90] In addition, the secretary of the navy may appoint each year 100
midshipmen from the enlisted men of the navy less than twenty years
old, the selection being based on competitive examinations.
=The Department of Justice.=--The office of attorney-general was created
in 1789, and from the first the attorney-general was a member of the
cabinet; but for a long time the duties of the office were not
extensive, and it was not until 1870 that the office was made an
executive department with its present title and organization.
_The Attorney-General_ is the chief law officer of the national
government and is the legal adviser of the President and the heads of
departments. He represents the United States before the Supreme Court in
cases in which it is a party, exercises a sort of administrative
supervision over the United States district attorneys and marshals and
over the federal penitentiaries, examines applications for pardons, and
advises the President in the exercise of his pardoning power. The
opinions which he renders on constitutional and legal questions referred
to him are published by the government in a series of volumes, and
altogether they constitute an important body of constitutional and
administrative law. Under the direction of the President he institutes
proceedings and prosecutes cases against corporations and persons for
violations of the laws of the United States, or directs the district
attorneys to do so.
=The Post Office Department.=--At the head of the post office department
is the postmaster-general. He establishes and discontinues post offices,
appoints all postmasters whose compensation does not exceed $1,000 a
year, issues postal regulations, makes postal treaties with foreign
governments, with the approval of the President, awards mail contracts,
and has general supervision of the domestic and foreign postal service.
There is an assistant attorney-general for the post office department,
who advises the postmaster-general on questions of law, has charge of
prosecutions arising under the postal laws, hears cases relating to the
misuse of the mails, and drafts postal contracts. There are also four
assistant postmasters-general, each of whom has supervision over a group
of services within the department. The postal service has already been
described in chapter xiv.
=The Department of the Interior.=--The interior department, established
in 1849, is one of the largest and most important of the ten executive
departments. Next to the post office department, the services which it
performs reach more people than those performed by any other department.
Its staff of employees at Washington ranks second in numbers only to
that of the treasury department. It has charge of the public lands,
Indian affairs, pensions, patents, the geological survey, and, to some
extent, the government of the territories.
=The Public Lands.=--Perhaps the most important bureau in the interior
department is the _General Land Office_, which has charge of the public
lands, and the care and control of the forest reserves. Before the
public lands are sold or otherwise disposed of they must be surveyed.
For this purpose there are seventeen surveying districts, in each of
which there is a surveyor general.
_Disposal of the Public Lands._--The public lands have been disposed of
with a somewhat lavish hand. In the early days liberal grants were made
to the soldiers of the Revolutionary War. Immense quantities have also
been sold at low rates--much of it at $1.25 per acre--in order to
encourage settlers to establish homes thereon. Considerable quantities
have also been granted to the states for educational purposes and the
construction of internal improvements. Beginning with Ohio in 1802, each
new state admitted to the Union was given one section in each township
for the support of elementary schools, and those admitted after 1850
were given two sections in each township. Under the Morrill act of 1862,
10,000,000 acres were given to the states for the establishment of
colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts. Some of the more recently
admitted states were given from one to four townships each for the
establishment of universities.[91]
[91] The six states admitted between 1889 and 1890 were given
23,000,000 acres.
Before the Civil War, large quantities were given to the states for the
construction of canals and railroads. Large tracts of the public lands
have also been granted to private corporations as subsidies for the
building of transcontinental railways. Finally, by an act of 1902, the
proceeds from the sale of all public lands in seventeen Western states
are set aside for constructing irrigation works in those states.
By the _preëmption act_ of 1841, it was provided that 160 acres of land
should be given to any family living thereon for a period of six months
and paying $200 therefor. This act was repealed in 1891, but millions of
acres were disposed of during the fifty years it was in force.
By the _homestead act_ of 1863, still in force, any head of a family may
acquire 160 acres by living on it for three years (it was five years
before 1912), cultivating a certain part of it, and paying a small fee.
_The Public Lands now Remaining_ aggregate about 665,000,000 acres,
including those in Alaska. Of these lands a large part have been set
aside for Indian reservations, national parks, military reservations,
and national forests,[92] and is therefore not open to purchase or entry
under the homestead act. Arid lands are sold in tracts not exceeding 640
acres at $1.25 per acre; mineral lands are sold at from $2.50 to $5 per
acre; timber and stone lands at a minimum of $2.50 per acre; town site
lands at a minimum of $10 per acre; and agricultural lands at $1.25 per
acre.
[92] There are now 153 national forests, embracing 175,940,000 acres.
_Land Offices_ are established in all the states where there is any
considerable amount of public land left. At each office there is a
register and a receiver who examines applications for entries and issues
certificates upon which patents or deeds are finally granted.
=Indian Affairs.=--Another important branch of the government service
falling within the department of the interior is the management of
Indian affairs. For a long time each tribe was treated to some extent as
though it were an independent community, and was dealt with somewhat as
foreign nations are dealt with. In 1871, however, it was enacted that
henceforth no Indian tribe should be acknowledged or treated as an
independent nation or power with which the United States may contract by
treaty--an act which marks the beginning of the end of Indian tribal
authority.
The policy of extending the jurisdiction of the government over the
Indians was begun by an act of 1885 which gave the United States courts
jurisdiction over seven leading crimes when committed by Indians on
their reservations. Previous to that time, crimes committed by Indians
against Indians within a reservation were left to be dealt with by the
tribal authorities themselves.
_The Allotment Act._--By the Dawes act of 1887 the new Indian policy
begun in 1871 was still further extended. This act provided for the
allotment of Indian lands to individual members of the tribe, and
declared that Indians who accepted such allotments or who should leave
their tribe and adopt the habits of civilized life, should be considered
as citizens of the United States and entitled to all the rights and
privileges of citizens. Previous to this time the lands occupied by the
Indians were owned by the tribe as a whole and not by the individuals
who occupied them. Under this act, individual allotments aggregating
more than 30,000,000 acres have been made to 180,000 Indians. There
remain about 120,000 Indians, to whom allotments are still to be made.
The result of this policy will ultimately be to extinguish the Indian
tribes and incorporate them into the American body politic.
_Indian Agents._--The control of the national government over the Indian
reservations is exercised largely through Indian agents appointed by the
President. They are charged with the regulation of trade with the
Indians, and have control of the distribution of rations. At each agency
one or more schools are maintained, and in addition to the reservation
schools there are schools for the higher education of Indians in various
parts of the country, the most important being at Lawrence, Kansas, and
Carlisle, Pennsylvania. The aggregate annual expenditures on account of
the service are now about $15,000,000, more than half of which consists
of payments due the Indians under treaty stipulations or of interest on
trust funds held by the government for them. The total amount of these
trust funds is about $50,000,000.[93]
[93] The Secretary of the Interior says the Osage Indians are probably
the wealthiest people in the world, their average per capita wealth
being over $9,500. Some families have an income of $12,000 a year.
=The Pension Bureau= has charge of the administration of the pension
laws. The payments on account of pensions now constitute the largest
item of expenditure by the national government. Before the outbreak of
the Civil War, pension expenditures rarely exceeded two million dollars
a year, and the total outlay for this purpose during the entire period
of our national history aggregated less than half the amount now
appropriated for a single year. According to the report of the
commissioner of pensions for 1919 there were 624,427 names on the
pension rolls, and the amount expended for pensions that year was over
$220,000,000. More than $5,000,000,000 has been expended for pensions
since the Civil War, a larger amount than the national debt incurred on
account of the war itself.
=The Patent Office= includes a large number of officers, examiners, and
employees, who are under the direction of the commissioner of patents.
Their work is described on p. 260.
=Minor Divisions of the Interior Department.=--_The Bureau of Education_
was established in 1867. At its head is a commissioner whose duty it is
to collect and publish statistics and other information concerning the
methods, conditions, and progress of education in the United States.
Each year he publishes an elaborate report summarizing the educational
progress of the country, together with monographs by experts on special
topics of educational interest. The commissioner is also charged with
the administration of the funds appropriated for the support of the
colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts and with the supervision of
education in Alaska and the reindeer industry in that country.
_The Geological Survey_ was established as a bureau in the department of
the interior in 1879. It is under the control of a director who is
charged with the classification of the public lands and the examination
of the geological structure, mineral resources, and mineral products of
the public lands and the survey of the forest reserves. The bureau has
undertaken the preparation of topographical and geological maps of the
United States, a considerable portion of which has been completed, the
collection of statistics of the mineral products, the investigation of
mine accidents, the testing of mineral fuels and structural materials,
and the investigation of surface and underground waters.
_The Bureau of Mines_, created in 1911, is charged with conducting
investigations looking toward the prevention of mine accidents, the
introduction of improvements in the general health and safety
conditions, the conservation of mineral resources, etc. The bureau
reported in 1913 that it had brought about a reduction in the number of
fatalities due to explosions, from 30 to 13 per cent.
=The Department of Agriculture.=--A so-called "department" of
agriculture was established in 1862, though its rank was only that of a
bureau and its head bore the title of commissioner. From time to time,
the scope and functions of the "department" were extended until 1889,
when it was raised to the rank of a cabinet department with a secretary
at its head. Like the other departments, it is organized into bureaus,
offices, and divisions.
_The Weather Bureau_ has charge of the preparation of weather forecasts
and the display of storm, cold wave, frost, and flood warnings for the
benefit of agriculture, commerce, and navigation.
_The Bureau of Animal Industry_ conducts the inspection of animals,
meats, and meat food products under the act of Congress of June 30,
1906, and has charge of the inspection of import and export animals, the
inspection of vessels for the transportation of export animals, and the
quarantine stations for imported live stock; supervises the interstate
transportation of animals, and reports on the condition and means of
improving the animal industries of the country.
_The Bureau of Plant Industry_ studies plant life in its relations to
agriculture. It investigates the diseases of plants and carries on field
tests in the prevention of diseases. It studies the improvement of crops
by breeding and selection, maintains demonstration farms, and carries on
investigations with a view to introducing better methods of farm
practice. It conducts agricultural explorations in foreign countries for
the purpose of securing new plants and seeds for introduction into the
United States. It studies fruits, their adaptability to various
climates, and the methods of harvesting, handling, storing, and
marketing them.
_The Forest Service_ is charged with the administration of the National
Forests. It also gives practical advice in the conservation and handling
of national, state, and private forest lands, and in methods of
utilizing forest products; investigates methods of forest planting, and
gives practical advice to tree planters; studies commercially valuable
trees to determine their best management and use; gathers statistics on
forest products, in coöperation with the bureau of the census, and
investigates the control and prevention of forest fires, and other
forest problems.
_The Bureau of Chemistry_ conducts investigations into the chemical
composition of fertilizers, agricultural products, and food stuffs. In
pursuance of the pure food law of 1906, it examines foods and drugs
intended to be sent from one state to another, with a view to
determining whether they are adulterated or misbranded. It also conducts
investigations of food stuffs imported from abroad and denies entry to
such as are found unwholesome, adulterated, or falsely labeled. It also
inspects food products intended to be exported to foreign countries
where standards of purity are required.
_Other Bureaus_, whose duties are indicated by their titles, are: the
bureau of soils, the bureau of crop estimates, the bureau of entomology,
the bureau of biological survey, the bureau of markets, and the bureau
of public roads.
=The Department of Commerce= embraces what remains of the department of
commerce and labor created in 1903, and divided in 1913 by the creation
of the department of labor. It is charged with the promotion of the
commerce of the United States and its mining, manufacturing, shipping,
fishing, and transportation interests.
_The Bureau of the Census_ is charged with the duty of taking the
decennial census of the United States, including the collection of such
special statistics as Congress may authorize. The first census, that of
1790, was taken under the direction of the United States marshals in
their respective districts; the statistics collected related only to
population, and the schedule embraced only six questions. In 1880 the
use of the marshals was done away with and a corps of census supervisors
provided. Until 1902 the machinery for taking the census was organized
anew for each census, but in the latter year provision was made for a
permanent census bureau. The schedule of inquiries has increased from
decade to decade until it now embraces a wide range of questions
relating not only to population, but also to vital statistics,
agriculture, manufactures, defective and criminal classes, cotton
production, statistics of cities, state and local finances,
transportation, mining, and various other matters, the results of which
are published in a series of large volumes and in special bulletins. At
the head of the bureau is a director, who is aided by an assistant
director, a number of statisticians and experts, and a corps of local
supervisors and enumerators. The census work was in the charge of the
department of state until 1850, when it was transferred to the
department of the interior.
_The Bureau of Navigation_[94] is charged with the general
superintendence of the merchant marine of the United States and of the
enforcement of the navigation laws. It has charge of the registration of
American vessels engaged in the foreign trade, and of the enrollment and
licensing of vessels in the coasting trade. It supervises the execution
of the tonnage laws and the collection of tonnage duties; prepares an
annual list of vessels registered under the American flag; and
supervises the work of the United States shipping commissioners, who
administer the laws for the protection of seamen.
[94] This bureau in the department of commerce must not be confused
with the bureau of navigation in the navy department, already
described.
_The Steamboat Inspection Service_ is charged with the administration of
the laws providing for the inspection of steam and sailing vessels
registered under the American flag; with the examination and licensing
of officers of such vessels, and with the protection of life and
property on water. At the head of the service is an inspector general,
who is aided by ten supervising inspectors, each of the latter having
under his supervision a number of local inspectors stationed at the
important commercial ports. All vessels must be inspected once a year as
to their safety, construction, and facilities for protection against
fire.
_The Bureau of Fisheries_ has control of fish hatcheries in many parts
of the country, for the propagation of useful food fishes; studies fish
culture and the causes of the decrease of food fishes; collects
statistics in regard to the fishery industry; and in general promotes
the fishery interests. It supervises the salmon fisheries of Alaska and
the fur seal industry on the Pribilof Islands of the Bering Sea.
_The Bureau of Lighthouses_ is charged with the construction and
maintenance of lighthouses, light vessels, beacons, fog signals, buoys,
and other aids to navigation. The seaboard is divided up into lighthouse
districts, in each of which is a naval officer who serves as inspector
and has immediate charge of the supply, maintenance, and administration
of the lighthouses in his district. At each lighthouse there is a keeper
and one or more assistant keepers. The establishment now consists of
more than 1,500 lighthouses and beacons, a fleet of light-ships, and
more than 6,000 buoys. Since 1910 the service has been under the
supervision of a commissioner.
_The Bureau of Standards_, established in 1901, is charged with the
custody of the national standards, the testing of measuring apparatus,
and the investigation of problems relating to standards of weighing and
measuring.
_The Coast and Geodetic Survey_ is charged with the survey of the coasts
and of rivers to the head of tide water, and the publication of charts
of the same; the investigation of questions relating to temperature,
tides, currents, and the depths of navigable waters; the making of
magnetic observations; the determination of geographic positions, and
the like. The results are published in annual reports and special
publications. It prepares tables, sailing directions, charts of the
coasts, harbor charts, notices to mariners, and other publications for
the use of mariners.
_The Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce_ is charged with fostering
and developing the various manufacturing interests of the United States
and extending the markets for manufactured articles abroad, by
collecting and publishing all available and useful information
concerning such markets and industries. It publishes statistics of
commerce, finance, etc., consular and trade reports, and an annual
volume known as the "Commercial Relations of the United States."
_The Bureau of Corporations_, created in 1903, was intended mainly
to furnish an agency for the investigation of corporations
suspected of violating the anti-"trust" laws of the United States.
It was authorized to investigate the organization and methods of
any corporation or joint-stock company engaged in foreign or
interstate commerce (except common carriers subject to the
interstate commerce act) and to report to the President such
information as might be of value in enabling him to enforce the
anti-"trust" laws. It was abolished in 1914 and its duties were
devolved upon the newly created Federal Trade Commission, which has
already been described (see p. 245).
=The Department of Labor= was created in 1913, and is charged with
fostering, promoting, and developing the welfare of the wage earners of
the United States, especially the improvement of the conditions under
which they work and the advancement of their opportunities for
profitable employment.
_The Bureaus of Immigration and Naturalization_, formerly consolidated
in the department of commerce and labor, were divided in 1913 and
transferred to the new department of labor. They are charged
respectively with the administration of the immigration laws and the
administration of the naturalization laws of the United States.[95]
[95] See also pp. 238-239. The increase in the number of immigrants by
decades is shown by the following table:
-------------------------+-------------------------+-----------------
DECADE | POPULATION AT BEGINNING | TOTAL NUMBER OF | OF DECADE |
IMMIGRANTS | |
-------------------------+-------------------------+-----------------
1821-1830................| 9,633,822 | 143,439
1831-1840................| 12,866,020 | 599,125
1841-1850................| 17,069,453 | 1,713,251
1851-1860................| 23,191,876 | 2,598,224
1861-1870................| 31,443,321 | 2,314,824
1871-1880................| 38,558,371 | 2,812,191
1881-1890................| 50,155,783 | 5,246,613
1891-1900................| 62,622,250 | 3,687,564
1901-1910................| 75,994,575 | 8,793,386
-------------------------+-------------------------+-----------------
In 1916 naturalization certificates were issued to 93,911 persons and
declarations of intention to become citizens were made by 207,935.
_The Bureau of Labor Statistics_, formerly known as the bureau of labor,
was transferred from the former department of commerce and labor in
1913. It is charged with collecting and diffusing among the people of
the United States useful information on subjects connected with labor
in the most general and comprehensive sense of that word, and especially
upon its relations to capital, the hours of labor, the earnings of
laboring men and women, and the means of promoting their material,
social, intellectual, and moral prosperity.
It is especially charged with investigating the causes of and facts
relating to all controversies and disputes between employers and
employees. It publishes from time to time the results of elaborate
investigations on various subjects relating to labor and industry, and
also issues a bimonthly bulletin on special topics within the same
field.
_The Children's Bureau_, established in 1912, is charged with the
investigation of problems relating to the welfare of children, such as
the conditions of the employment of children, the causes of infant
mortality, etc.
In 1920 the _Women's Bureau_ was established to promote the welfare of
wage-earning women.
=References.=--ANDREWS, Manual of the Constitution, pp. 327-352.
BEARD, American Government and Politics, ch. xi. BRYCE, The
American Commonwealth (abridged edition), ch. viii. FAIRLIE,
National Administration of the U. S., ch. iv. HARRISON, This
Country of Ours, chs. xi-xviii.
=Documentary and Illustrative Material.=--1. The Congressional
Directory. 2. Annual reports of the heads of department and other
officials, such as the commissioner of pensions, the commissioner
of the general land office, the commissioner general of
immigration, the civil service commission, the interstate commerce
commission, etc.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What is the origin of the term "cabinet"? On what days are cabinet
meetings now held?
2. What are the principal differences between the American cabinet and
the British cabinet?
3. Do you think the members of the cabinet should be members of
Congress? If not, ought they to be allowed seats in Congress without the
right to vote?
4. Do you think the President ought ever to disregard the advice of his
cabinet?
5. Give the names of five distinguished secretaries of state since 1789.
6. Washington's first cabinet was composed of an equal number of members
from both political parties. Would it be wise to follow that practice?
7. Why is the secretary of the treasury required to make his annual
reports to Congress while the other heads of departments make theirs to
the President?
8. Would it be wise to elect the heads of departments of the federal
government by popular vote as those of the state governments usually
are?
9. Do you think the secretary of war ought to be an army officer as is
the usual practice in Europe?
10. Why is the postmaster-generalship usually given to an active party
manager?
11. Why is an importer ineligible under the law to appointment as
secretary of the treasury?
12. Why is the department of state really misnamed? Would the title
"department of foreign affairs" indicate more precisely the duties of
the department?
13. What is your opinion of the movement to establish a department of
public health?
14. Do you think the bureau of education should be raised to the rank of
a department?
[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT]
[Illustration: THE SUPREME COURT ROOM]