SUFFRAGE AND ELECTIONS
=Nature of the Elective Franchise.=--The right of suffrage, that is, the
right to take part in the choice of public officials, is sometimes said
to be a natural and inherent right of the citizen, but in practice no
state acts upon such a principle. The better opinion, as well as the
almost universal practice, is that suffrage is not at all a matter of
right, but a privilege bestowed by the state upon those of its citizens
who are qualified to exercise it intelligently and for the public good.
No state allows all its citizens to vote; all the states restrict the
privilege to those who are at least twenty-one years of age; all confine
the privilege to those who are _bona fide_ residents of the community;
and some require educational, property, and other qualifications of
various kinds. On the other hand, eight states allow aliens who have
formally declared their intention of becoming citizens, to vote equally
with citizens in all elections.[20] The terms "voter" and "citizen,"
therefore, are not identical or synonymous.
[20] These states are Arkansas, Indiana, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska,
Oregon, South Dakota, and Texas.
=Existing Qualifications for Voting.=--In the early days of our history
restrictions on the voting privilege were much more numerous and
stringent than now. Most of the early constitutions limited the
privilege to property owners, and some prescribed religious tests in
addition. It is estimated that at the beginning of the nineteenth
century not more than one person in twenty had the right to vote,
whereas now probably the proportion is two in five.
_Federal Restriction._--In the United States the power to prescribe the
qualifications for voting in both national and state elections belongs
to the individual states, subject only to two provisions: in fixing the
suffrage they cannot abridge the privilege (1) on account of race,
color, or previous condition of servitude, or (2) on account of sex. The
first provision is found in the Fifteenth Amendment to the Federal
Constitution, adopted in 1870, and its purpose was to prevent the states
from denying the privilege of suffrage to negroes who by the Fourteenth
Amendment, adopted in 1868, had been made citizens of the United States.
The second provision is in the Nineteenth Amendment adopted in 1920.
These provisions do not, however, prevent the states from limiting the
privilege on other grounds, such as illiteracy, criminality, vagrancy,
nonpayment of taxes, and the like.
_The Residence Requirement._--In the first place, all the states require
residence for a specified period in the state and in the election
district in which the voter exercises his privilege of voting. The
purpose of this requirement is to confine the franchise to those who
have become identified with the interests of the community, and to
exclude outsiders or newcomers who are unfamiliar with local conditions
and unacquainted with the qualifications of the candidates. The required
length of residence in the state ranges from three months in Maine to
two years in most of the Southern states, the more usual requirement
being one year. The period of residence required in the county or
election district is shorter, the most common requirement being three
months in the county and one month in the election district.
_Educational Tests._--In addition to this requirement, nearly one third
of the states insist upon some kind of educational test. Connecticut in
1855 was the first state to require ability to read and write.
Massachusetts followed her example shortly thereafter, and the precedent
set by these two states was soon followed, with modifications, by
California, Maine, Wyoming, New Hampshire, Delaware, and Washington.
The adoption of the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870, which indirectly
conferred the right to vote on the negro race, and the unfortunate
results which followed the enfranchisement of the large mass of blacks
in the South, led some of the Southern states to adopt educational and
other restrictions to diminish the evils of an ignorant suffrage.
Mississippi in 1890 took the initiative, and required ability either to
read the constitution of the state or to understand it when read by an
election officer. South Carolina followed her example in 1895, but with
the modification that an illiterate person who was the owner of at least
$300 worth of property should not be disfranchised. Louisiana, Alabama,
North Carolina, Virginia, Oklahoma, and Georgia followed with
restrictions based on similar principles. In several of these states,
however, the educational qualification does not apply to those who were
voters in 1867 (when the negro race was still unenfranchised), or to
their descendants, or to those who served in the army or navy during the
Civil War. But in 1915 the Supreme Court of the United States decided,
in the case of Oklahoma, that these so-called "grandfather" provisions
were unconstitutional.
_Other Persons Excluded._--Most of the states deny the right to vote to
convicted criminals, idiots, and insane persons; some, particularly
those of the South, insist that the voter must have paid his taxes; some
exclude vagrants, paupers, and inmates of public institutions.
=Woman Suffrage.=--For a long time women everywhere were denied the
right to vote, even long after their civil disabilities had been
removed. The principal arguments advanced by the opponents of woman
suffrage were: that active participation of women in political affairs
would tend to destroy their feminine qualities by forcing them into
political campaigns, and thus causing them to neglect their children;
that it would tend to introduce discord into family life by setting
husband against wife on political issues; that since women are incapable
of discharging all the obligations of citizenship, such as serving in
the army, militia, or police, they ought not to have all the privileges
of citizenship; that a majority of the women did not desire the
privilege of voting; and that men could be trusted to care for the
interests of the whole family.
[Illustration: VOTER CASTING A BALLOT]
[Illustration: WOMAN SUFFRAGE PARADE, WASHINGTON, D.C., MARCH 3, 1913]
_Arguments in Favor of Woman Suffrage._--In favor of giving the ballot
to women, it was argued that differences of sex do not constitute a
logical or rational ground for granting or withholding the suffrage if
the citizen is otherwise qualified; that women should be given the
ballot for their own self-protection against unjust class legislation;
that since millions of them had become wage earners and were competing
with men in nearly every trade and occupation and in many of the learned
professions, the argument that the wage earner should have the ballot as
a means of defense applied equally to women as to men; that since the
old civil disabilities to which they were formerly subject, such as the
inability to own real estate, enter into contracts, and engage in
learned professions had been removed, it followed logically that their
political disabilities should be removed also; and that since many of
them had become property owners and taxpayers it was unjust to permit
the shiftless nontaxpaying male citizen to take part in choosing public
officials and at the same time deny the right to women taxpayers.
Moreover, it was argued that the admission of women to a share in the
management of public affairs would elevate the tone of politics and
conduce to better government. Women are vitally interested in such
matters as taxation, education, sanitation, labor legislation, pure food
laws, and better housing conditions in the cities, and it was maintained
that in those states where they had been given the right to vote they
had been instrumental in securing wise legislation on many of these
subjects. Finally, it was argued, the fact that some women do not care
for the privilege is no reason why it should be denied to those who do
desire it.
_The Enfranchisement of Women._.--These arguments in favor of suffrage
for women gradually made a strong appeal to the men and one state after
another conferred a limited suffrage on women citizens. At first they
were allowed to vote in school elections, or in municipal elections, or
on proposed bond issues (if they were taxpayers). From this it was a
short step to equal suffrage with men in all elections and by 1920 there
were some sixteen states in which this right had been conferred upon
women. In the meantime various foreign countries, including England and
even Germany, had granted the full right of suffrage to women. After
long agitation on the part of American women, Congress in 1919 submitted
to the state legislatures an amendment to the Federal Constitution
providing for full woman suffrage in all the states, and this nineteenth
amendment was ratified in 1920.
=The Duty to Vote.=--The better opinion is that the exercise of the
suffrage is not only a high privilege conferred by the state on a select
class of its citizens, but is a duty as well. Among the great dangers of
popular government are indifference and apathy of the voters. If popular
government is to be a success, we must have not only an intelligent and
honest electorate but also one which is wide-awake and vigilant. Under a
democratic system of government like ours, the character of the
government is largely what the voters make of it. If we are to have
capable and honest officials to enact laws and enforce them, the voters
must see to it that such men are nominated and elected and compelled by
the pressure of a vigorous and alert public opinion to the faithful
performance of their duties. Every voter should inform himself as to the
qualifications of candidates for office and as to the merits of policies
upon which he is called to express an opinion, and having done this, he
ought to go to the polls and contribute his share to the election of
good men and the adoption of wise public measures.
_Compulsory Voting._--The question has sometimes been discussed as to
whether one who possesses the privilege of voting ought not to be
legally required to exercise it just as the citizen is compelled to
serve on the jury or in the militia. Several European countries, notably
Belgium and Spain, have adopted a system of compulsory suffrage under
which failure to vote is punishable by disfranchisement, an increase of
taxes, publication of the name of the negligent voter as a mark of
censure, etc. But however reprehensible the conduct of the citizen who
neglects his civic obligations and duties as a member of society, it is
hardly the province of the state to punish the nonperformance of such a
duty. Moreover, if required by law the duty might be exercised as a mere
form and without regard to the public good. Better results are likely to
be obtained by treating it as a moral duty and a privilege rather than a
legal obligation. But public opinion ought to condemn the citizen who
without good cause neglects his obligations to society, one of which is
the duty to take part in the election of those who are responsible for
the government of the country.
=The Registration Requirement.=--Nearly all of the states now require as
a preliminary condition to the exercise of the suffrage that the voter
shall be "registered," that is, that he shall have his name entered on a
list containing the names of all qualified voters in the election
district who are entitled to take part in the election. The purpose of
this requirement is to prevent double voting and other abuses of the
electoral privilege. In densely populated districts it is impossible for
the election judges to know personally all the voters, and hence without
some means of identifying them it would be difficult to prevent persons
outside the district from taking part in the election or to prevent
those properly qualified from voting more than once. In a few
communities, however, the old prejudice against such a requirement still
prevails; for example, the constitution of Arkansas declares that
registration shall not be required as a condition to the exercise of the
elective franchise.
_Methods of Registration._--Two general types of registration
requirements are now in existence. One is the requirement that the voter
shall present himself in person before the board of registration prior
to each election and get his name on the list. The chief objection to
this requirement is that it constitutes something of a burden to the
voter and often disfranchises him on account of his negligence or
inability to register on the day prescribed.
The other type of registration requirement is in force in Massachusetts,
Pennsylvania, and many other states. Where this system prevails, when
the voter's name is placed on the registration list, it is kept there so
long as he remains in the district, and it is unnecessary for him to
register each year. The principal criticism of this plan is that the
registration list is less likely to be correct, because the names of
persons who have died or moved away are likely to be kept on the list;
whereas under the other method they would be stricken off.
=Time of Holding Elections.=--National elections for the choice of
President and Vice President are held on the Tuesday after the first
Monday in November every four years. Elections for representatives in
Congress are held on the same date, in most states, every second year.
Elections for state officers are generally held on the same day as
national elections, though where state officers are chosen annually,
state elections of course come oftener. A few states, however, prefer to
hold their elections at a different date from that on which national
elections are held. Four states, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, and
Virginia, hold theirs in the odd years, while national elections always
occur in the even-numbered years. A few others which have their
elections in the even-numbered years hold them at a different time of
the year from that at which national elections are held. Thus Arkansas
and Maine hold their state elections in September, Georgia holds her
election in October, and Louisiana holds hers in April.
In many of the states an attempt is made to separate national and state
elections from municipal elections in order to encourage the voters to
select municipal officers without reference to state or national issues.
Thus in New York, where national and state elections occur biennially in
the even-numbered years, city elections are held in the odd-numbered
years. Likewise, in Illinois, city elections are held in April, while
state and national elections are held in November. So, too, in some
states judicial elections are held at a different date from other
elections, in order to minimize the influence of party politics in the
selection of judges.
Other local elections--township, county, and village--are held in some
cases at the same time as the state election, and in other cases such
elections, or some of them, are held on different days.
=Manner of Holding Elections.=--Before an election can be held, due
notice must be given of the time and place at which it is to be held and
the offices to be filled or the questions of public policy to be
submitted to the voters. For the convenience of the voters the county or
city is divided into districts or precincts each containing a
comparatively small number of voters, and for each district there is
provided a polling place with the necessary number of booths, ballot
boxes, and other election paraphernalia. The responsibility for
preparing the ballots, giving notice of the election, and providing the
necessary supplies is intrusted to certain designated officials.
Sometimes the county clerk, sometimes the city clerk, and sometimes, as
in the large cities, a board of election commissioners, performs these
duties.
_Election Officers._--At each polling place, on election day, there is a
corps of election judges or inspectors, poll clerks, ballot clerks, and
the like. Each party is allowed to have one or more watchers, and
frequently there is a police official to maintain order at the polls.
While the polls are open, electioneering within a certain number of feet
of the election place is forbidden, and usually no person except the
election officers, the watchers, and the person who is casting his
ballot are allowed in the polling room. Every polling place is equipped
with one or more voting booths which must be so constructed as to insure
secrecy on the part of the voter while he is marking his ballot. The
polls are opened at a designated hour, and before the balloting begins
the ballot boxes must be opened and exhibited to show that they are
empty, after which they are locked and the casting of the ballots
begins.
=Evolution of the Ballot.=--In the early days of our history, voting was
by _viva voce_, that is, by living voice. Each voter as he appeared at
the polling place was asked to state the names of the candidates for
whom he desired to vote, and this he did in a distinct voice that could
be heard by the bystanders as well as the election officials. The
obvious objection to such a method was that it did not secure secrecy,
and moreover it stimulated bribery because it was easy for a person who
purchased a vote to see that the vote was delivered as paid for. The
states soon began to experiment with the method of voting by ballot, and
the advantages were so evident that in time this method was adopted in
all of them, the last state to abandon the old method being Kentucky in
1891.
At first written ballots were generally used; then it became the
practice for each candidate to print his own ballots; and later each
party would put on the same ballot the names of all the party candidates
and have them printed at the expense of the party. Each of these methods
had its disadvantages. When the last method prevailed, for example, the
ballots of the different parties were printed on different colored
paper, so that it was easy to ascertain a voter's intentions by the
color of the ballot in his possession. These ballots were distributed
days before the election and were frequently marked by the voter before
going to the polls. Such a system not only made secret voting difficult,
but it afforded abundant opportunities for using undue influence over
certain classes of persons to compel them to vote for particular
candidates. To remove these and other evils which increased as time
passed, the Australian ballot system, with modifications, was introduced
into this country, first by the state of Massachusetts in 1888, and in
one form or another it is now found in practically all the states.
=The Australian Ballot.=--The distinguishing features of the Australian
system are the following: The names of all the candidates of every
political party are placed on a single ballot; this ballot is printed at
public expense and not by the candidates or parties; no ballots are
distributed before the election, and none are obtainable anywhere except
at the polls on election day, and then only when the voter presents
himself to vote; and the ballot can be marked only in voting booths
provided for the purpose, and in absolute secrecy.
The Australian system has been more or less modified in all the states
where it has been introduced, so that it really does not exist in its
pure form anywhere in this country, the nearest approach to it being the
Massachusetts system. The prevailing forms may be reduced to two general
types: the "office column" type, of which the Massachusetts ballot is a
good example; and the "party column" type found in Indiana and many
other states.
_The "Office Column" Ballot_ has the names of the candidates for each
office arranged in alphabetical order under the title of the office, and
to vote such a ballot it is necessary for the voter to look through each
column, pick out the candidate he favors, and mark a cross in a blank
space opposite each name for which he votes. To do this requires not
only considerable time, but a certain amount of intelligence and
discrimination.
[Illustration: OFFICE COLUMN BALLOT Part of Massachusetts Ballot of
November, 1908]
[Illustration: PARTY COLUMN BALLOT Part of Indiana Ballot of November,
1908]
_The "Party Column" Ballot_ arranges the candidates, not under the
offices which they are seeking, but in parallel columns according to
political parties, there being a column for each party. Opposite each
candidate's name on the "party column" ballot is a blank space, and at
the head of each column is a circle and usually a device or emblem to
indicate the party. By making a mark in this circle the voter may cast a
ballot for all the candidates of the party. This is called "straight"
voting. He may if he wishes, however, vote a "split" ticket by putting a
cross in the blank spaces opposite the names of candidates of his choice
in the different columns. The chief objection that has been urged
against this type of ballot is that by making it so easy to vote a
"straight" ticket, it encourages strict party voting, whereas
independent voting, especially in city elections, should be encouraged
by every possible means.
The "office column" ballot, on the other hand, encourages independent
voting by making it just as difficult to vote a "straight" ticket as a
"split" one. In Massachusetts there has been a remarkable amount of
independent voting, due partly to the form of ballot used. The "office
column" type of ballot is now used for all elections in about one fourth
of the states, and in a number of others for municipal elections.
=Ballot Reform.=--In recent years there has been considerable discussion
of the subject of ballot reform, and not a little experimenting with
different schemes. Political reformers generally demand the abolition of
the "party column" form, or at least the abolition of the party circle,
as a means of discouraging straight party voting, but the professional
politicians insist upon its retention. Whatever may be the form
ultimately adopted, one reform is desirable, namely, greater
simplification, to the end that the electoral franchise may be exercised
more intelligently and easily. In some of our states the number of
elective offices has increased to such proportions, and the ballot to
such size, that it has become a real burden to vote it.
A ballot used in Chicago in 1906 contained the names of over 330
candidates and was over two feet in length and nearly two feet in
width. From this bewildering array of names the voter was compelled
to pick out his choice for the following offices: state treasurer,
state superintendent of public education, trustees of the
University of Illinois, representative in Congress, state senator,
representative in the state assembly, sheriff, county treasurer,
county clerk, clerk of the circuit court, county superintendent of
schools, judge of the county court, judge of the probate court,
members of the board of assessors, judges of the municipal court
for the two-year term (nine to be elected), members of the board of
review, president of the board of county commissioners, county
commissioners (ten to be elected on general ticket), trustees of
the sanitary district of Chicago (three to be elected), clerk of
the municipal court, chief justice of the municipal court, judges
of the municipal court (nine to be elected), judges of the
municipal court for the four-year term (nine to be elected). In
Oregon in the election of 1912 the ballot contained the names of
177 candidates and 37 laws and amendments.
To vote ballots containing many names requires a good deal of care, if
not experience, to avoid error which will result in having it thrown
out, for the regulations governing the marking of the ballot are very
strict and must be observed if the vote is to be counted. Accordingly,
elaborate instructions covering large sheets are posted throughout the
election district and at the polls for the guidance of the voters, and
these have to be carefully studied by inexperienced voters who desire to
avoid mistakes. Sample ballots also may be provided for practice. One
result of the increasing complexity of the ballot is to give an
undesirable advantage to the professional politicians who understand how
to vote such ballots, and to discourage those who are not politicians.
_Voting Machines._--A few states have adopted voting machines,
especially for their large cities. These are so arranged that the voter
may, by going into a booth and pulling a number of knobs, register his
vote quickly and without the danger of spoiling his ballot. When the
polls are closed the results are already recorded on a dial, and the
long delay in counting the returns is eliminated. The chief objection to
the voting machine, however, is the expense, and this has prevented its
more general adoption.
=Formalities of Voting.=--When the voter presents himself at the
polls[21] he must announce his name and address to the election
officials. If his name is found on the registration list, he is given a
ballot and his name entered on the poll book. He then enters a booth,
where he marks his ballot, for which purpose he is allowed to remain
therein not exceeding a certain length of time. He must not mark his
ballot in such a way that it can be identified after it has been placed
in the ballot box, and no erasures are allowed. If he spoils his ballot
he will be given another, and if he is physically unable to mark it, or
if, in some states, he is illiterate, he will be allowed the assistance
of two persons representing different political parties. His right to
vote may be challenged, in which case he will be required to identify
himself or "swear in" his ballot, a record of which must be duly kept.
When he has marked his ballot he must fold it in such a manner as to
conceal its face, and hand it to one of the election judges, who
announces the name of the voter; the fact of his voting is recorded, and
the ballot placed in the box.
[21] Most states have laws allowing voters to leave work for a certain
length of time on election day without deduction of wages. A few states
provide means for taking the votes of those who are necessarily absent
on business on election day. Many states provide for taking the votes
of men serving as soldiers in time of war.
At a certain hour prescribed by law the polls are closed, after which
the votes are counted; and when this task is complete the returns are
announced. Generally the ballots must be preserved for several months in
order that an opportunity may be offered for a recount in case the
election is contested. Usually the ballots cannot be reopened and
recounted except by order of a court or of the committee on elections of
the legislature.
=Legislation Against Fraudulent Voting; Corrupt Practices Acts.=--For a
long time in this country there was little legislation designed to
regulate the conduct of elections and to protect the exercise of the
electoral privilege against fraud. The principal evils of the old system
were: lack of secrecy in voting; the use of separate ballots printed by
the candidates or their party organizations; the distribution of these
ballots before election day; lack of means for identifying the voters;
bribery, intimidation, treating, and the use of other objectionable
means for influencing voters; "repeating"; ballot box "stuffing"; and
the like. To eliminate or diminish these and other evils, practically
all the states have passed laws of one kind or another. They are
generally known as corrupt practices acts and are, for the most part,
based on the English law of 1883. Much of this legislation is detailed
and complex, and some of it is still in the experimental stage.
The corrupt use of money in elections has come to be one of the greatest
political evils of our time. The buying of votes is a very common
practice in some communities, and unfortunately is not as strongly
condemned by public opinion as it should be. Some 50 per cent of the
voters in one county of Ohio were disfranchised by the court for selling
their votes in the general election of 1910. The growth of great
corporations, many of which desire legislation in their interest, or
immunity from unfavorable laws, has introduced a more or less
corrupting element in our political life. Some states have enacted laws
forbidding corporations, under heavy penalties, from making
contributions to the campaign funds of political parties. Others have
forbidden the practice of political committees of assessing office
holders for campaign purposes. Some have gone to the length of
forbidding "treating" and other similar means of influencing voters.
Some limit the amount of money that may be spent by a candidate or his
friends in the conduct of his campaign, usually specifying the purposes
for which expenditures may be made. Thus the Connecticut and New York
laws allow expenditures only for such matters as the rent of halls,
compensation of speakers and musicians, fireworks, printing,
lithographs, advertisements, traveling expenses, postage, telegrams,
hiring of carriages to take voters to the polls, and the like. A few,
however, prohibit the hiring of carriages, and some forbid the giving
away of liquor at elections. Some states require candidates to make
sworn itemized statements of the expenditures incurred by them on
account of the election, and some fix the maximum amount that may be
expended. Thus in New York a candidate for governor may expend only
$10,000 on account of his candidacy; candidates for other state officers
are permitted to spend $6,000. The need of limitations was illustrated
by the fact that the Democratic candidate for governor of New York in
1906 spent over $256,000 in the prosecution of his candidacy, and a
candidate for state senator spent $30,000 to secure an election.[22] A
recent candidate for the United States senate in a Western state
admitted that his aggregate expenses were $107,000, and another
testified that he spent $115,000 in the effort to secure an election.
[22] Fuller, "Government by the People," p. 150.
_State Contributions to Party Campaign Funds._--In the belief that the
state ought to bear a part of the candidate's expenses, to the end that
the poor office seeker may be more nearly on an equal footing with the
candidate of means, Colorado recently passed a law providing that the
state should contribute to the campaign fund of each political party a
sum of money equal in amount to twenty-five cents for every vote cast by
the party for governor at the preceding election. The law allowed the
candidates themselves to spend their own money to aid in their election,
but prohibited other persons or corporations from making contributions.
In short, the expense was to be borne by the state and the candidate
alone. This Colorado law, however, was declared unconstitutional by the
state courts.
_Other Restrictions._--In some states also the expenditures of party
committees are limited, and such committees are required to make sworn
statements of their expenditures and the purposes for which they were
made. Several states prohibit the payment by other persons of a voter's
poll tax where the payment of such a tax is a condition to the voting
privilege.
Everywhere there are laws against bribery, intimidation, fraudulent
voting, and most of the other election offenses. More and more, public
sentiment demands that elections shall be free from the taint of
corruption, to the end that the results shall represent the real choice
of the people and thus popular government made to be what its founders
intended that it should be.
=References.=--BEARD, American Government and Politics, pp.
453-457; also ch. xxiii. FULLER, Government by the People, chs.
ii-vi, viii-xi. GARNER, Introduction to Political Science, ch. xv.
HART, Actual Government, ch. iv.
=Documentary and Illustrative Material.=--1. Legislative manual or
blue book of the state. 2. The election laws of the state. 3. Copy
of instructions to voters. 4. Specimen ballots.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What are the qualifications for voting in your state?
2. When were women first allowed to vote in your state?
3. Are there any offices in your state held by women?
4. How many voters are there in your state?
5. Is there a registration requirement?
6. Do you think the right to vote should be restricted to persons who
are able to read and write?
7. Give the date on which state elections are held in your state; city
elections; judicial elections. Why should national, state, and city
elections be held on different dates?
8. Name some offices in your state now filled by popular election which
in your opinion should be filled by appointment.
9. Who are the election officers in your county?
10. What is the usual location of the polling place in your ward or
precinct?
11. Explain the difference between a "party column" and an "office
column" ballot. Which type of ballot is used in your state? In case the
former is used does it contain a party circle and a party symbol at the
head of each column?
12. Procure a specimen ballot used at the last election and explain how
to mark and cast it.
13. Are voting machines used in your state? If so, where?
14. Is there a law in your state against the improper use of money in
elections? Does it specify the purposes for which campaign expenditures
may be made? Are candidates required to make sworn statements of their
election expenses? Are there any limitations on the amount a candidate
is allowed to spend?
15. Do you think corporations should be prohibited from making
contributions to the campaign funds of political parties?