THE WAR WITH RUSSIA, AND JAPAN A WORLD POWER
War Operations on Land--Four Great Japanese Armies in the
Field--The Siege and Capitulation of Port Arthur--Operations of
the Navy--The Annihilation of the Russian Fleet--Terms of the
Treaty of Portsmouth--Treaty of Alliance with England--Financial
Troubles in Japan and Riotous Demonstrations against the
Government--Supplementary Treaty with Russia--Government Control in
Corea Transferred to Japan--Abdication of the Corean Emperor and
a Japanese Resident-General Appointed--Attacks on Japanese on the
United States Pacific Coast--General Arbitration Treaty with the
United States
With the striking of the first blows to check Russia’s advance, Japan
at once became master of the situation in the Far East and remained
master till the end of the war through repeated victories on land and
sea. Japanese progress and expansion had been imperiled by Russia’s
occupation of Manchuria and by Russian aggression in Corea, these two
countries being the very territory needed by Japan for her overflowing
population. Therefore, behind national pride in the splendid
achievements of the Japanese army and navy, was national instinct
of self-preservation. Corea and Manchuria were to Japan national
necessities; and so Japan began ridding herself of the menace of Russia
in territory that the Japanese regarded as being logically their own
sphere of influence. Japan won; and, by reason of victory, became a
world power, to dominate in the East for years to come.
The last week of February, 1904, found General Kuroki, commanding the
Japanese First Army in the East, with his forces concentrated along
the Yalu River that separates Corea from Manchuria. General Kuroki had
already occupied Ping Yang, and now was ready to begin the forward
movement against the Russian army under General Kuropatkin.
March and April witnessed the steady advance of the Japanese First
Army, Kuroki having crossed the Yalu River with three divisions
to attack divisions of Kuropatkin’s army under General Sassulitch
and others. On May 1st, the first serious blow was struck, at
Kiu-lien-cheng, when Kuroki drove the Russians out of that place. The
Japanese immediately followed up this victory with another--driving the
Russians from their position north of Kiu-lien-cheng, to which they had
retreated. The losses in these two engagements were (officially) 2,397
officers and men of the Russian forces; and (unofficially) 800 officers
and men of the Japanese army.
On May 7th, Kuroki captured another town, Feng-wang-cheng, the Russians
retreating without giving battle. The first setback to the Japanese
in the war came with defeat in an engagement with Cossacks north of
Feng-wang-cheng, May 18th.
Eight days later (May 26), however, the almost monotonous succession
of victories that characterized the movement of the Japanese armies
throughout the war was resumed with a victory at the great battle of
Kinchow and Nanchan Hill. This was the first really notable pitched
battle of the war. After sixteen hours of continuous fighting, the
Russians began a precipitous retreat, pursued by the Japanese.
The casualties on both sides were very heavy, those of Japan being
estimated at between 3,500 and 4,300 killed and wounded. The Russians
left 704 dead on the field at Nanshan Hill alone--the bodies being
buried by the Japanese some two weeks later (June 12). Altogether
the Russian total loss in killed and wounded was 2,600. The Japanese
reported the capture (during the Kinchow and Nanshan Hill engagements
and in the minor engagements that were taking place simultaneously), of
600 prisoners, 21 guns, 1,000 rifles, and 350,000 rounds of ammunition.
This great victory was the first of the many to be celebrated in Japan
with joyful popular demonstrations.
On May 30th, the Japanese attacked and defeated 2,000 Cossacks at
Ai-pien-men; and on the same day, General Oku, commanding the Japanese
Second Army, reported to his Government that he had occupied the port
of Dalny, which the Russians had evacuated after destroying a large
part of the town. General Oku reported, however, that the docks, piers,
and railroad station, were not seriously damaged.
Meanwhile (May 23 to 26), the Japanese Third Army, under General Nodzu,
engaged in a series of battles with the Russian forces (under General
Fock) which General Stoessel had sent out from Port Arthur to attempt
to restore the line of communication between the besieged city and
Mukden.
Fifty thousand men of General Oku’s Second Army caught a large body
of Russians under General Stakelberg in ambush, near Telissu, on June
14th, and a battle ensued in which the Russians lost 4,300 men and
the Japanese 1,100. Thus the Japanese thwarted one more attempt of
the Russians to move to the relief of Port Arthur, General Stakelberg
having concentrated his troops on the line of railroad leading to
the besieged city. The Russians now fell back upon Kaiping, but the
Japanese drove them from that position, July 9th. Meantime, the Third
Army under General Nodzu had effected a junction with Kuroki, and
together the two armies advanced to Sunachen and there again defeated
the Russians, after a two hours’ battle. A Fourth Japanese Army had
taken the field, and Field Marshal Oyama was placed in supreme command
of all Japanese operations.
Now came another notable defeat of the Russians. In a desperate attempt
to prevent the separation of their forces, 20,000 Russians, under
General Keller, unsuccessfully attacked the Japanese at Fenshiuling
(July 17), and then retired to a strong position on the Yantze Pass. On
July 23d, General Oku advanced to the attack on Yinkow, and compelled
the Russians to abandon the place. Furthermore, on July 31st, the
Japanese, after a desperate fight, drove the Russians under General
Keller from their position on Yantze Pass. General Keller was killed
and his men fell back to Liaoyang. Simultaneously, Generals Oku and
Nodzu combined in an attack on the Russians at Haicheng (August 2),
compelling the enemy to evacuate that place also. Thus with a loss of
2,400 men, the Japanese had within a few days driven the enemy back
from the mountains into the Manchu Plains.
With 200,000 men the Japanese then renewed the attack on the Russians
(who had 148,000 men), at Liaoyang. The First, Second and Third Armies
began a general advance (August 26), and continued to push forward
till September 3d, when the Russians were driven out of Liaoyang and
compelled to retreat toward Mukden. By September 5th the Russian forces
under General Kuropatkin were practically surrounded by the Japanese.
In October occurred one of the greatest battles of the war, that of
the Sha River and Lone Tree Hill. This time the Russians took the
offensive, advancing, 300,000 strong, upon the Japanese battle line
along the Sha River. For a week, fighting night and day, the battle
continued, the Japanese losing their commanding position on Lone Tree
Hill. This battle also checked the Japanese advance and ended the
campaign for the fall and winter. In this seven days’ fight each side
lost about 45,000 killed and wounded.
Fighting was resumed on January 25, 1905, when the Russians again
took the initiative, General Kuropatkin, with 400,000 men, ordering
a general attack on the enemy near Liaoyang. For six days the battle
lasted, with desperate fighting on both sides, but resulting in the
repulse of the Russians. Then, from February 20th to March 15th, was
fought the series of terrific engagements known as the battle of
Mukden. Field Marshal Oyama’s four armies, consisting of 500,000 men,
extending in line-of-battle over a semicircle 120 miles long, advanced
in a general attack which resulted in the taking of Mukden on March
10th and the demoralized retreat of the Russians, March 15th. In these
operations the Japanese lost 60,000 men, the Russians 100,000.
At Port Arthur the siege continued with a number of aggressive
movements by the Japanese who, by assault, began taking the inner
forts on August 21st. Ten days later a general assault, directed by
General Nogi, was made on the city, but was repulsed. On September 24th
the Japanese captured the forts commanding the water supply of the
city. On November 4th, the Japanese took Wantai Hill, and on November
30th captured 203-Metre Hill commanding city and harbor. Fight after
fight took place until January 2, 1905, when the capitulation of the
city became an accomplished fact, General Stoessel surrendering to
General Nogi. After this most notable siege of modern history, in which
the Japanese gained the richest prize of the war (Port Arthur being the
key to the situation on land), the reckoning showed that the Japanese
lost three times as many men as the enemy--45,000 on the Japanese side,
while the Russian losses were only 15,000.
On the sea, at the same time, Japanese operations resulted in still
more brilliant victories. On April 13, 1904, the Russian battleship
_Petropavlovsk_, returning to Port Arthur harbor with Admiral Makaroff
on board, struck a mine (or possibly a torpedo), and sank, the Russian
admiral and 600 of the crew of the battleship losing their lives.
In May the Japanese bombarded Vladivostok, and, by sinking merchant
vessels at the entrance to Port Arthur harbor, attempted to bottle up
the Russian squadron. On May 11th the Japanese lost a cruiser that was
torpedoed off Port Arthur; and on the 17th lost two more warships, one
by a mine and the other by collision. Naval fights occurred during the
summer and fall, usually with decided success for the ships of the
Mikado. On December 6th, having captured 203-Metre Hill, the Japanese
shelled the Russian fleet in the harbor, sinking a turret-ship and a
battleship, and seriously damaging other vessels, thus rendering Russia
helpless in naval operations in those waters.
However, the Russian Baltic Sea fleet, under Admiral Rojestvensky,
was on the way to the East; and upon this fleet now were centred all
Russian hopes of regaining even partial control on the Far Eastern
seas. But Admiral Togo, commanding the Japanese naval forces, was
lying in wait off Tsu Island, in the east channel of Corea Strait,
and no sooner did Rojestvensky’s fleet arrive (after junction with a
smaller squadron under Admiral Nebogatoff) than Togo steamed forward
to deliver a crushing blow that was to end the war and to bring Togo
everlasting fame. Togo signaled to his vessels: “The destiny of our
Empire depends upon this action. You are all expected to do your
utmost.” That was at noon, May 27, 1905. All that afternoon and all
the following day the fighting continued, resulting in the practical
annihilation of the Russian fleet--all the best remaining ships of
the Russian navy being sunk. Admiral Rojestvensky was taken prisoner;
Admiral Nebogatoff surrendered his squadron. Admiral Togo sank six
battleships, six cruisers, a coast-defense vessel, a repair ship, and
a number of destroyers, while on his own very slightly damaged vessels
there were less than 1,000 casualties.
Ten days later (June 8, 1905), Theodore Roosevelt, President of the
United States, intervened to end the war. Addressing the Japanese and
Russian Governments, Mr. Roosevelt urged immediate and direct peace
negotiations and offered his friendly services. Both the belligerent
nations accepted the President’s offer (June 12) and plenipotentiaries
were at once appointed to discuss the terms of peace. Baron Komura
and Mr. Takahira representing Japan, and Baron Rosen and Count Witte
representing Russia, were introduced to one another on the President’s
yacht, _Mayflower_, at Oyster Bay, Long Island, August 5th. The envoys
were then conveyed to the Navy Yard at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, where
the sessions of the peace conference continued for thirty days, the
Treaty of Portsmouth being signed on September 5th.
By the terms of this treaty, Japan secured from Russia “not one kopek,”
as Count Witte expressed it, for war indemnity. Japan gained, however,
a recognition of her preponderant influence in Corea and an agreement
by Russia to evacuate Manchuria and to return to China the civil
administration of Manchurian territory. Also Japan acquired Russia’s
leasehold of Port Arthur, the holding of all military works at Port
Arthur and Dalny, and the control of the Chinese Eastern Railway.
Finally, Japan secured from Russia the cession of one-half of the
island of Sakhalin, Japan taking the half nearest to her own islands
(the southern half) while Russia retained the northern half.
These terms, however, wore unsatisfactory to the Japanese
people--especially the failure to secure any indemnity--the people
feeling that they should have received more for their sacrifices made
during the war. Riotous demonstrations against the Government broke out
in Tokio and elsewhere, but were quelled after the placing of Tokio
under martial law.
In the reckoning of grand totals of forces engaged and men lost in
the war, it was estimated that Japan had over 1,200,000 troops in the
field, and that her losses in killed and wounded, and from disease,
amounted to 370,000. Russia had only 870,000 men actually in the field,
though her available force in the East was over 1,000,000 men. Russian
field casualties were estimated at 350,000.
Three weeks after the signing of the Treaty of Portsmouth, Japan
renewed her Treaty of Alliance with Great Britain (September 27, 1905),
to remain in force for ten years. By the terms of this treaty both
countries agreed to maintain peace in Eastern Asia and India and to
respect the integrity of China; England agreed, also, to recognize
Japan’s paramount political, military, and economic interests in Corea.
On December 28, 1905, the Emperor of Japan opened the first Diet
following the war and the new Alliance Treaty with England, referring
in his speech to the fact that Japan had become a world power and that
it was the duty of Parliament and of all citizens to assist to the
utmost in fulfilling the country’s newly acquired obligations.
A new Cabinet was then formed with Marquis Saionji as Premier. Through
the two years following, during which the Marquis was in power, the
country was agitated by a succession of popular demonstrations against
the Government, the people declaring that the nation’s finances were
not properly administered and that taxation had increased “beyond
tolerance.” The crisis in the financial situation was reached on
January 14, 1908, when Marquis Saionji tendered his resignation, only
to have it refused by the Emperor, his Majesty asserting that the
Premier’s policies possessed his entire confidence.
On January 19th, the Progressive Party of Japan adopted a platform
attacking the Cabinet for “bad finance and weak diplomacy.” And as late
as March 21, 1908, figures presented to the House of Peers showed the
necessity for an increase in taxes to meet deficits. This additional
drain on the popular pocketbook resulted in disturbances and even
sanguinary riots in May of 1908.
A supplementary treaty with Russia, known as the Russo-Japanese
Convention, signed July 30, 1907, strengthened the diplomatic
friendship that was re-established between Japan and her erstwhile
enemy by the Treaty of Portsmouth. By the terms of the new Convention,
the contracting nations agreed each to respect the existing territorial
integrity of the other. Both recognized the independence and
territorial integrity of China and the principle of equal opportunities
in commerce and industry of all nations in the Chinese Empire. Also the
Convention provided for a linking of the Japanese and Russian railways
in Manchuria.
Japanese control in Corea was completed, indeed, only after a series
of wordy conflicts with the Corean Emperor and his Ministry, and after
a number of riots throughout Corea that had to be put down by Japanese
troops with much shedding of blood.
Soon after the opening of hostilities between Japan and Russia, an
agreement between the Mikado’s representative and the Corean Emperor
was signed (February 23, 1904), whereby Corea adopted the advice of
Japan in respect to various improvements in administration, while Japan
insured the safety of the Imperial Household of Corea and guaranteed
the independence and territorial integrity of the Corean Empire. By
this agreement, Japan secured the assistance of the Corean army in
movements in Corea.
A second agreement between Japan and Corea, signed August 22, 1904,
provided for a Japanese Financial Adviser and a Foreign Diplomatic
Adviser to regulate the Corean finances and foreign relations.
On November 18, 1905, two months after the signing of the Treaty of
Portsmouth, occurred the formal transfer to Japan of the control of the
Corean Government. This transfer was in accordance with a treaty signed
the day before, at Seoul, whereby it was provided that Japan should
control and direct the external relations and affairs of Corea, through
the Japanese Department of Foreign Affairs in Tokio. It was also agreed
that Japan should have direct representation at the Court of the
Emperor of Corea by a Resident-General residing at Seoul. Count Ito, of
Tokio, was appointed to this post; and, acting under the terms of the
treaty, he at once stationed Japanese Residents (or local governors) at
the several open ports of Corea and at other places in Corea.
From the beginning of Japanese control, the attitude of the Emperor of
Corea toward the Mikado’s representatives was one of active opposition
and at times even of open hostility. The secret plottings of the
disgruntled Emperor against the Japanese authorities reached their
culminating act in the spring of 1907, when he sent a delegation,
with more or less secrecy, to the Hague Peace Conference. This led to
his abdication in favor of the Crown Prince, July 19, 1907. Coreans
asserted that the abdication was compulsory. The facts, as given
officially, however, show that the Emperor abdicated by unanimous
advice of his Ministers.
With the accession to the throne of the new Emperor, a new Convention
was promulgated (July 25), in which the future course of Japanese
control was defined and agreed to by his Corean Majesty, as follows:
First, the administration of the Corean Government was to be under the
Japanese Resident-General, Count Ito; second, all transactions of
important state affairs, as well as the enactment of all laws, were to
receive the approval of the Resident-General before going into effect;
third, all appointments of high executive officials were to receive
the approval of the Resident-General; fourth, Japanese subjects, if
recommended by the Resident-General, were to be eligible to hold
office under the Corean Government; fifth, no foreigners were to be
employed by the Corean Government excepting with the consent of the
Resident-General.
After the signing of this Convention, the Corean army was disbanded. By
May 2, 1908, cordial relations between the new Emperor and the Japanese
Resident-General had progressed to such an extent that the Corean
Government itself began an active campaign against the disorderly
elements throughout the Empire.
Relations between the Governments of Japan and the United States
continued undisturbed through the first three years following the
close of the Russo-Japanese War, though at one time, in 1907, the
press and people both in Japan and the United States went so far as to
discuss the possibility of war between the two countries. The rumors
of war were the outgrowth, first, of the act of the authorities of San
Francisco, California, in barring Japanese pupils from the regular
public schools; second, of the agitation in the United States to
restrict Japanese immigration; third, of the decision of the United
States Government to send a great fleet of battleships, for the first
time in history, to the Pacific; fourth, of attacks on Japanese
subjects at San Francisco and other places on the Pacific Coast.
While barring Japanese pupils from the regular schools, the authorities
of San Francisco proposed that a separate Oriental School be maintained
for Japanese, on the ground that the Japanese “schoolboys” were, many
of them, grown men and that they corrupted the morals of the white
pupils. President Roosevelt sent Secretary of the Navy Metcalf to make
a thorough investigation and, upon receiving his report, requested
that the San Francisco officials abandon the idea of a separate school
for Orientals and that Japanese pupils be readmitted to the regular
public schools. San Francisco agreed to this, on condition that the
United States Government take immediate measures to restrict further
immigration of Japanese from Hawaii, the Philippines, Canada, Mexico,
and Panama.
Meantime, popular demonstrations against the Japanese had taken place
at various cities on the Pacific Coast. In San Francisco, especially,
stores and other places of business conducted by Japanese were wrecked
and the owners and employees thereof attacked. Action taken by the
authorities to punish the offenders led to rioting and still further
attacks on the Japanese. The result was a formal protest from the
Japanese Government demanding protection for Japanese subjects in
California. Thereupon the Federal Government at Washington announced
that it would “proceed to use every available means, civil and
military, to protect aliens.” Attacks on the Japanese occurred at
intervals, nevertheless, until well into 1908, when peace was seemingly
restored.
In December, 1907, while the anti-Japanese feeling on the Pacific Coast
of the United States ran highest, the Japanese Government received
proposals from the United States Government in regard to restricting
immigration. To these restrictions the Japanese Government agreed
(December 31), and in February, 1908, the matter was closed by an
agreement signed by Japan to supervise future immigration to the United
States in accordance with the restrictions agreed upon.
The attitude of the Japanese people in regard to the visit of the
United States fleet to the Pacific Coast was at first one of mild alarm
and resentment. Altogether different was the attitude of official
Japan. So far was the Japanese Government from resenting the movement
of the fleet that a formal invitation was sent to President Roosevelt
inviting the United States ships of war to visit Japan. This invitation
was accepted March 20, 1908. In June the fleet, then on the Pacific
Coast of the United States, was making preparations for the long
voyage to Japanese waters and thence around the world. And in proof
of the cordial reception accorded to Americans and American wares in
Japan, the Government at Tokio (April 1, 1908), published a report
containing figures showing that the United States led the nations of
the world in trade with Japan. Moreover, a general Arbitration Treaty
between Japan and the United States was signed at Washington, May 5,
1908.
Prince Fushimi, adopted brother of the Mikado, arrived in the United
States in November, 1904, calling on President Roosevelt on the 15th.
The reception accorded the Prince in Washington and other American
cities gave great satisfaction in Japan, as did also the manner in
which he was received in Canada and England, which countries he visited
after leaving the United States.
Japanese-Chinese relations continued on a basis of uninterrupted
cordiality following the close of the Russo-Japanese War, until early
in 1908, when, in the Chinese harbor of Macao, Chinese officials seized
a Japanese merchant steamer, the _Tatsu Maru_, a large part of the
cargo of which consisted of arms and munitions of war. The seizure
immediately created a sensation throughout both Empires. Japan, on
February 29th, demanded an apology and an indemnity from China for the
seizure. On March 14th China returned the vessel to Japan and agreed
to pay an indemnity, though she retained the arms found on board. The
release of the ship caused widespread indignation among the Chinese,
who in vengeance started, in March, a boycott against the Japanese
that lasted until June, though Japan meanwhile formally requested the
Chinese authorities to suppress the boycott.
Japan needed, of course, a confirmation from China of the transfer by
Russia to Japan of the Chinese Eastern Railway, and of the lease of
Port Arthur and the Liau-tung Peninsula, in accordance with the Treaty
of Portsmouth. Accordingly, a Convention between the two countries was
signed January 22, 1906--thus completing the final move in securing to
Japan her prizes won in the war.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] The koku, or “stone,” contains 5.13 bushels; is the measure by
which revenue is estimated; is the standard value of the country;
and is generally considered equivalent to one gold kobang. The only
invariable standard of value in the world is the average amount of food
that will suffice to keep a man in health--a pound varies, the other
does not.
[2] This was the title of the young man living in Paris in 1867.
Commonly called brother of the Tycoon.
[3] Ko, coming after a name, has the meaning of “a high personage,” a
title of honor.
[4] These four are the highest of the official or Fudai class of
Daimio, and are commonly known as the Si Ten wo, or “four heavenly
emperors”--a Buddhist title.
[5] Saywa made the laws as to the Shinwo and royal families. His sixth
son was Sadadzumi Sinwo. On Momidji yama (a little hill within the
grounds of the Yedo castle) is a small temple. On the altar are tablets
with the names of men of six generations: 1, Sadadzumi; 2, of his son
Tsune moto (who first took the name of Minna moto); 3, of his son Mitz
naka (a soldier of note); 4, of his son Yori nobu; 5, of his son Yori
Yoshi; 6, of his son Yoshiyay (otherwise called Hatchimang taro), and
of his son Yoshi Kooni (whose descendants divided into the Nitta and
Ashikanga lines). The temple was erected for the reception of those
tablets, to which worship is offered every morning.
[6] There are two keng, one used at Miako, known as Miako no keng, or
Kioma, or Homma, the longer of the two. The other is the Inaka keng,
or Inakama, shorter by three or four inches. Taikosama introduced the
second.
[7] A gambling game analogous to the “white-pigeon card” of China
(Pak kop piu), at which much money is lost by families. A head office
issues papers upon which the eighty first characters of the “Thousand
Characters Classic” are printed in rows. These may be purchased for
any price the purchaser chooses to lay upon them. During the night
ten characters are marked by the office. The purchaser marks ten, and
speculates upon his hitting some or all of the same as were marked at
the office.
[8] The dynasty having been recently set aside, the country is in a
transition state, and the position of these Daimios in the future
remains to be worked out.
[9] Whose retainers and secretary the Regent had arrested and brought
to Yedo.
[10] The mode of suicide common in Japan may be noticed here. It is
called by the natives literally to “cut the belly.” The name “happy
dispatch” seems to have been a felicitous suggestion of some foreigner.
It is said to be done by a cut across the abdomen, and sometimes
another cut is said to be made in the form of a cross. But any one who
knows anything of the subject will think this nearly an impossibility,
from the extreme difficulty of making the two other cuts necessary
to make a cross. This would be a very butchering and trying job, and
would bring on only a lingering death. So far as can be judged from
the way it is performed in theaters, the knife, a short well-sharpened
instrument, is inserted into the abdomen, and then drawn across the
backbone, so as to sever the great blood-vessels, the aorta and
ascending vein, which are there of such a size as to allow of death
from their division in a few seconds. There seems to be no drawing
across the abdomen. What is called swallowing gold leaf in China is in
reality inhaling it when rubbed to a sort of flaky powder. It seems to
choke the air-vessels, and so produce suffocation.
[11] Afterward assassinated by his servant, an emissary of Mito, who
had got into the office as clerk, and kept Mito informed of all that
transpired.
[12] It is a custom in Japan that the territory of a man who has been
killed by assassins is taken from his family, and the family and
retainers of the Regent were afraid of this law being put in operation
against them.
[13] These are men at the palace gate who look out for Daimios
approaching, and give notice to the guard, that they may know how to
salute them, according to their rank. They make money by bribes to give
the Daimios higher salutes than they are entitled to.
[14] The sleeve peerage, as it is called, a little abridgment of the
Bookang, with the crests, names, and offices of Daimios, often used by
strangers to recognize Daimios passing.
[15] Mito is said to have traveled over the empire incog. at this time,
to study the feelings of the people.
[16] The Gorochiu would not allow this to be granted, and never
published it.
[17] The custom in Japan is to bring the left of the dress over the
right side in front, “migi yeri”; and it is a common saying that
foreigners will soon oblige them to change even this custom, and
“hidari yeri,” cross it over the left side.
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:
Italicized text is surrounded by underscores: _italics_.
Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.
Inconsistencies in hyphenation of English words have been
standardized.
Inconsistencies in hyphenation of words other than English have been
retained.
Archaic or variant spelling has been retained.
New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the
public domain.