Among the most successful officers of the war of 1812, was Major
General WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. Descended from a good old
revolutionary stock, and thoroughly imbued, in his boyhood, with
sentiments of the most sincere and devoted patriotism, he laid the
foundation, at an early age, of the fame and distinction which
he acquired in maturer years. Throughout a long life,--one full
of interest, and replete with important incidents,--he enjoyed a
wide-spread popularity, which, in the western states of the Union,
was sometimes manifested with all the fervor of enthusiasm. No one
better deserved the respect and esteem of his countrymen, and there
are few whose character has come brighter or purer from the ordeal,
when submitted to that Areopagus of public opinion, whose decisions
admit not of dispute.
[Sidenote: HIS FATHER.]
He was born at Berkeley, the family seat of his father, on James
river, Virginia, on the ninth day of February, 1773; being the
youngest of three sons. His father, Colonel Benjamin Harrison, was a
descendant of the celebrated officer of the same name, who fought by
the side of Cromwell for civil and religious liberty, but, preferring
a turbulent democracy to a quiet despotism, opposed the ambitious
projects of the Lord Protector, with the same stubborn vehemence
with which he had contended against the attempted usurpations of
the tyrant Charles. But--what is of more immediate value to us
as Americans--he was one of the signers of the Declaration of
Independence, and “the intimate friend of Washington”!
[Illustration: WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON.]
Colonel Harrison took his seat in the Congress of the Confederation,
as one of the delegates from Virginia, in 1774, and remained a
member of that body, during that and the two following years. On the
resignation of his brother-in-law, Peyton Randolph, the president
of Congress, he was urged by a number of friends to take the vacant
place, but declined the honor, and, on his nomination, John Hancock
was appointed to fill the station. It is also stated, in connection
with this circumstance, that when the latter manifested some
hesitation about accepting the office, Colonel Harrison caught the
modest patriot in his arms, and almost carried him to the chair,
_nolens volens_. He took an active part in the discussions and
deliberations that preceded the adoption of the Declaration, and
was the chairman of the committee of the whole when the vote to
agree to it was taken. There is an anecdote related of him at this
juncture, which attests the warmth of his feelings, and the sterling
genuineness of his patriotism. Although John Dickinson was openly
and avowedly opposed to the separation from the mother country, his
honesty and integrity were never questioned, and his conceded ability
secured the respect of the other members of Congress. Upon his urgent
request, he was permitted to draw the second petition to the King,
which was adopted, though with considerable reluctance. After the
vote was taken, Mr. Dickinson could not refrain from expressing
his satisfaction, and, at the close of his remarks, said, that
there was but one word which he disapproved, and that was the word
“_Congress_.” Colonel Harrison sprang to his feet the instant Mr.
Dickinson was seated, and exclaimed with emphatic earnestness--“There
is but one word in the paper, Mr. President, of which I _approve_,
and that is the word ‘_Congress_’!”
Colonel Harrison was afterwards, for several years in succession, a
member of the Virginia house of delegates, and filled the office of
speaker till the close of the year 1781, when he succeeded Governor
Nelson in the executive chair of that state. On the expiration of his
official term in 1784, he retired to private life, but to the time of
his death, which occurred in 1791, he was known and esteemed by the
ablest men in the nation, and revered and honored by all classes and
parties of his fellow-citizens.
The subject of this biography, William Henry Harrison, was early
placed at Hampden-Sidney college. At the age of seventeen he left
the institution with his mind well stored with classical lore, and
not long after, in compliance with the wishes of his father, whose
liberal hospitality forbade the bestowal of large fortunes on his
children, commenced the study of medicine. Having completed a short
preparatory course of reading, he proceeded to Philadelphia, in the
spring of 1791, to attend the lectures at the University, and avail
himself of the other facilities afforded in that city for obtaining
a knowledge of the profession which he had selected. He had but
just arrived there and resumed his studies, when the intelligence of
his father’s death reached him, and effected an entire change in his
plans for the future.
[Sidenote: DEFEAT OF ST. CLAIR.]
Notwithstanding the earnest remonstrances of his guardian, Robert
Morris, the celebrated financier, who depicted, in glowing colors,
the fatigues and hardships which he would be compelled to undergo,
he determined to enter the army, and with his own good sword hew
out a way to distinction. Preparations were then making for another
campaign against the Indians on the northwestern frontier,--the
expedition of the previous year, under General Harmar, having failed
of accomplishing any decisive results. This added fire to the spirit
of young Harrison. Washington was applied to,--and respect for the
memory of the father, and esteem for the son, whose importunities
could not be disregarded, procured for the latter an ensign’s
commission in the regular service. He departed immediately for Fort
Washington, now Cincinnati, but, though he hurried forward with
eager impetuosity, did not succeed in joining the army, then but a
remnant of what it had once been, till after the disastrous defeat
of the brave and honest, but unfortunate St. Clair, on the fourth
of November, 1791. On joining his regiment, at Fort Washington,
he learned the particulars of the sad tragedy which had just been
enacted. The melancholy fate of Butler, Oldham, Hardin, and their
companions, who had fallen victims to the wiles of a barbarous
and cruel enemy, so far from damping his ardor, or chilling his
enthusiasm, only heightened the fire of patriotic indignation that
burned in his bosom, and increased his anxiety to take the field,
and aid in inflicting a summary punishment upon the merciless savages.
At this time there were no settlements of consequence north of the
Ohio, except those at Kaskaskia, Vincennes, Fort Washington, and
Marietta; and, on the south, between that river and the Tennessee,
there were comparatively few inhabitants scattered over the territory
previously known as Kentuckeè, “the Bloody Land,”--for many years the
battle-ground of the Northern and Southern Indians. The protection,
therefore, of the exposed frontiers, depended mainly on the regular
force of the General Government, and the militia of Pennsylvania and
Virginia; for, though the citizens of this remote region were ever
prompt to obey the call to arms, they were too feeble in numbers, to
cope, unassisted, with so powerful a foe. General St. Clair, governor
of the “Territory north-west of the Ohio,” had moved upon the Miami
villages with over fourteen hundred men; of this number, six hundred
and thirty-one were killed in the fearful onslaught of the fourth
of November, and there were two hundred and sixty-seven wounded;
consequently, it was necessary to raise a large additional force,
before offensive operations could be further prosecuted. President
Washington immediately recommended a considerable increase of the
army, and Congress adopted his suggestions.
[Sidenote: CAMPAIGN UNDER WAYNE.]
In the then state of the country, it required no little time and
preparation to fit a great body of troops for the field; numerous and
unavoidable delays occurred; and, in the meanwhile, attempts were
made to conclude a peace with the hostile Indians. The messengers
dispatched by the Executive of the United States were treacherously
murdered, and negotiation was no longer admissible, save at the point
of the bayonet. In the autumn of 1793, a force of twenty-six hundred
men, nearly all of whom were regulars, under the command of General
Wayne, were concentrated at an encampment established near Fort
Washington on the Ohio.
While these preparations were in progress, young Harrison, who
had been promoted to a lieutenancy, was sedulously employed in
studying his profession. His skill and proficiency as a tactician,
attracted the attention of the officer selected to take command of
the projected expedition, and he was designated as one of his aids.
Having completed his arrangements, General Wayne took up the line
of march for the Indian country, early in October. The lateness
of the season rendered it impossible to accomplish anything till
another campaign, and on his arrival at one of the tributaries of the
Stillwater branch of the Big Miami, he established himself in winter
quarters, and commenced organizing and disciplining his troops.
Lieutenant Harrison was prominent among the young officers engaged in
the work of instruction, and his services were flatteringly noticed
by the commanding general.
In the summer of 1794, General Wayne was joined by upwards of one
thousand mounted militia, and without delay set out in pursuit of
the enemy, who, he learned, were in strong force at the Rapids of
the Maumee. On the twentieth of August, he encountered the Indians,
who had vainly attempted to draw him into an ambush, near the _Roche
de Bouc_, on the north bank of the river, and defeated them with
great slaughter. Their chief, Turkey-foot, and a large number of
their best and bravest warriors, were slain; and the remainder
either dispersed, or sought shelter under the guns of Fort Maumee,
then occupied by a British garrison. The bravery and intrepidity of
Lieutenant Harrison in this affair, were conspicuous; and in the
official report of the action, his name is mentioned in terms of high
commendation.[8] While the army lay in the vicinity of Fort Maumee,
an incident transpired, which came very near terminating, in all
probability, the life of General Wayne, and that of his gallant aid.
Positive instructions had been received to demolish the fort occupied
by the English troops, in utter disregard of the provisions of
the treaty of 1783, and in order to enable him to decide upon the
propriety of an attempt to reduce it, General Wayne, accompanied by
his suite, advanced to reconnoitre. In this daring reconnaissance,
the general, who possessed a constitutional indifference to danger,
with Lieutenant Harrison at his side, rode within eighty yards of
the fort, and within point blank range of its guns. While making
their observations, with the utmost coolness, an English captain of
marines turned one of the pieces upon them, and was about to apply
the port-fire, when Major Campbell, the commandant of the garrison,
interposed, just in time to prevent the catastrophe that would most
likely have occurred. Major Campbell subsequently apologized for the
unofficer-like conduct of his subordinate, and to his gentlemanly
behavior the preservation of peace between the two countries may be
attributed.
General Wayne did not deem it advisable to attack the post with
the means at his command, and having destroyed the Indian villages
within fifty miles of either side of the river, he returned to Fort
Defiance, at the confluence of the Au Glaize and Maumee. The defeat
which the Indians had sustained was decisive; everything remained
quiet during the ensuing winter; and in July, 1795, General Wayne
concluded a favorable treaty, at Greenville, with a number of chiefs
representing ten different nations.
Upon the conclusion of the treaty, Harrison, now raised to the
rank of captain, was placed in command of Fort Washington, and,
shortly after, was married to a daughter of Judge Symmes,--a most
amiable woman; distinguished for high moral worth, for her piety and
benevolence; and esteemed and loved by a large circle of friends and
acquaintances.
[Sidenote: COMMENCES HIS CIVIL CAREER.]
Captain Harrison soon became dissatisfied with the idle routine of
a garrison life; there seemed to be no prospect that his serviced
would be required in the field; and he longed for more active
employment. Accordingly he resigned his commission, and in 1797, at
the age of twenty-four, commenced his civil career, as secretary
of the territory, under Governor St. Clair. His talents and many
estimable qualities had already brought him into favorable notice,
and the duties of his office were discharged with so much promptitude
and fidelity, that he was regarded as one of the ablest young men
in the territory. His popularity steadily increased, and in 1799,
he was elected as the first delegate in congress. On taking his
seat, in December, of that year, he was appointed, upon his urgent
solicitation, chairman of the committee on the public lands,--the
only instance, it is stated, in which a delegate was so distinguished.
The improvement of the existing land system had long been a favorite
object with him. Many of its features were wholly inconsistent with
the genius and spirit of democratic institutions, and calculated
to retard the growth and prosperity of the great West. Among other
provisions equally odious in their character, was one forbidding
the sale of land by the government, in quantities of less than
four thousand acres, except where there were fractions on the
banks of large streams. Harrison had the forecast to discover,
what a boundless field would be opened for the enterprising youth
and industrious laboring classes of the Atlantic states, by the
removal of this obstacle to the settlement of the territory, the
development of the resources which nature had so lavishly bestowed
upon it, and its rapid advancement to wealth and greatness. Through
his instrumentality, aided by the efforts of other able members of
both houses, who united with him in procuring this reform, a law was
enacted, requiring one half of the public lands remaining unsold, to
be divided into sections of six hundred and forty acres each, and the
remaining moiety into sections of three hundred and twenty acres; the
old system of forfeiture for non-payment was abolished, and payments
were directed to be made, in future, one quarter down, and the
remainder in two, three, and four years, with a further forbearance
of one year on the last payment, if desired.
[Sidenote: GOVERNOR OF INDIANA TERRITORY.]
This was not all that Harrison wished to effect; but an important
point was gained. Emigrants flocked into the territory by scores
and hundreds, and the gratitude of the citizens, both the old
inhabitants, and the new-comers, who had been benefited by his
exertions, never failed to follow his footsteps as those of a
benefactor and friend.--Such was the estimation in which he was
held by his constituents, that he was solicited, on all hands, to
take the place of Governor St. Clair. In reply to every intimation
of this kind, Harrison steadily refused to permit any effort to be
made, to supersede the war-worn veteran, whose only fault, if fault
it be, was, that fortune had been chary of her favors to him, when
her smiles, doubtless for some wise purpose, were showered upon those
not more able, not more deserving, nor more prompt in the performance
of every duty. The desire of Harrison’s friends was soon gratified,
however, in his appointment by President Adams, in 1800, as the first
governor of the newly erected territory of Indiana. Though deprived,
by his position as a delegate, from taking part in the general
legislation of the country, his sound judgment and sterling worth had
secured him an enviable reputation, and when he left Congress, he was
followed by the regard and cordial good wishes of his associates.
Shortly before his leaving the Capital, a circumstance occurred,
which deserves to be mentioned, as illustrating the purity of
motive, and honesty of purpose, which marked his public conduct.
His father-in-law, Judge Symmes, was the proprietor of the Miami
purchase; and previous to obtaining his patent, he had made a number
of sales. It was doubtful whether the rights thus acquired were of
any value, even in equity; but, upon the introduction of a bill in
Congress providing for the settlement of the purchase, although the
interests of Judge Symmes, and, indirectly, his own, were jeoparded,
Harrison went before the committee having the bill in charge, and
successfully urged the insertion of a clause amply protecting the
claims of the purchasers.
In 1801, Governor Harrison entered upon the discharge of his official
duties, at Vincennes, an old military and trading post, on the left
bank of the Wabash, which was settled by the French about the year
1730. Though invested with extraordinary powers, the office to which
he had been appointed was no sinecure. Besides the settlement at
Vincennes, there were but two others, of importance, in the whole
territory, out of which was afterwards formed the states of Indiana
and Illinois, viz.; Clarke’s Grant at the falls of the Ohio, and
the settlement extending along the Mississippi, from Kaskaskia to
Cahokia. The white population did not exceed five thousand souls, and
they were entirely surrounded, on the north and west, by numerous
bands of Indians, who were either openly and avowedly hostile, or
wanted but a favorable opportunity to manifest their hatred and
ill-will.
[Sidenote: VARIED SERVICES.]
To provide for the security of the settlements in the territory,
however remote, or widely separated; to overawe the savages, or
hold them in check; to encourage immigration; and to promote, in
all things, the happiness and welfare of the inhabitants,--were
the objects to which Governor Harrison unremittingly devoted his
time and attention. In addition to his other duties, he acted as
commissioner of Indian affairs, in which capacity he concluded
fifteen treaties, and extinguished the title of the aborigines to
more than seventy million acres of land--then, for the most part,
an unbroken wilderness, but now dotted all over with the abodes of
wealth and contentment, and teeming with a thriving and industrious
population. Frequent journeys were performed by him, along the wild
forest paths, and miserable _traces_, which led from one station or
settlement to another. Dangers were fearlessly encountered; fatigue
never disheartened him. He cheerfully shared the privations of the
settlers; partaking with them of the rudest cheer, or, seated on a
hewed block before a roaring fire, listening attentively to tales
of trial and hardship, and offering the kind word of sympathy and
encouragement. Wrapt in his blanket, or enveloped in the folds of a
bear skin or buffalo robe, he slept, too, as soundly and sweetly on
the bare earth in the hunter’s lodge, or the puncheon floor of a log
cabin, as upon the beds of down in his father’s mansion.
In 1802, Ohio was admitted into the Union as a state, and Wayne
county,--afterwards the territory, and, still later, the state of
Michigan,--was then attached to the territory of Indiana. The duties
of Governor Harrison were thus rendered still more arduous. He was
relieved from this additional care, however, in 1805, when Michigan
was erected into a separate territory. The country filled up so
rapidly, that it became necessary, in a few years, to relieve him
yet further, and in 1809, a territorial government was formed for
Illinois.
Many years elapsed after the conclusion of the treaty of peace,
in 1783, before Great Britain entirely abandoned her expectations
of reëstablishing, at some future, and not very remote day, her
authority over her revolted American colonies. It was customary for
her writers and politicians to underrate the importance, and sneer
at the pretensions of the young republic, till they saw, in the
rapidly-extending commerce and growing prosperity which followed the
restoration of peace and tranquillity, unmistakable indications that
the daughter would soon be no mean rival of the mother country in the
race of nations. To check these germs of greatness, ere they should
bud and blossom, was now the favorite object of English statesmen. As
no pretext existed for open hostilities, resort was had to the low
arts of diplomacy--to intrigue and cunning; and amid the moral and
political corruption, which, at that era, polluted the atmosphere of
St. James, plans were concocted, whose atrocity must ever stand out
in bold relief on the page of impartial history.
[Sidenote: ENGLISH INTRIGUES.]
Disregarding the provisions of the treaty of 1783, the British
authorities retained possession of the military posts northwest of
the Ohio, and to these, and similar establishments in the Canadas,
agents were sent, to suborn, and tamper with, the savages on the
northern frontiers of the American Union, and incite them to commit
acts of hostility upon the persons and property of the settlers who
had found their way into the rich valley of the Mississippi. It was
the policy of Washington,--and, after him, of Adams, Jefferson, and
Madison,--to purchase the lands belonging to the Indian tribes,
required by the increasing white population of the country, at a fair
equivalent; to furnish them the means of civilization; to provide
for them the restraints of well-ordered and wholesome regulations;
to enkindle new desires, and implant new motives in their breasts;
to enlighten their minds and Christianize their hearts. England, on
the contrary, forgetting the eloquent and indignant denunciations of
her Chatham, and careless how she sullied the national escutcheon,
already stained by many a foul blot, supplied them with arms and
ammunition,--with blankets, tobacco, and “fire-water,”--not to induce
them to cultivate harmony and good-will with their neighbors, the
citizens of the United States; but to minister to their most depraved
appetites, and arouse the most vindictive passions of their natures.
She asked them, not to lay aside the implements of death, and
engage in the pursuits of peace; but invited them to continue their
barbarous warfare, and glut their vengeance, to the full, with the
tomahawk and scalping-knife!
Under the auspices of Simcoe, and other agents of Great Britain,
immediately after the peace, a combination was formed among the
Northwestern Indians, the object of which was to prevent the
Americans from extending their settlements beyond the Alleghanies.
The border inhabitants were constantly harassed by the irruptions
of the savages; scenes of bloodshed and murder were of frequent
occurrence; and when efforts were made to chastise the perpetrators
of these outrages, they found in England a fast and firm friend,
whose assistance, though not openly rendered, proved of essential
service to her allies. Her influence was felt in the defeat of Harmar
and St. Clair, and when the mounted volunteers under the gallant
Wayne scattered the savages in confusion, on the banks of the
Maumee, they fled for protection beneath the guns of a fortress over
which floated the red cross of St. George.
The defeat of the Indians by Wayne was a severe lesson, and it was
long remembered. Fortunately, too, for our country,--who needed only
a season of peace, and repose from “war’s alarms,” to advance with
rapid strides to the high destiny before her,--the revolutionary
spirit had, at this time, crossed the Atlantic, and the watch-fires
of liberty were blazing on the continent of Europe. Alarmed for the
stability of her institutions at home, England had no time to spend
in courting the favor of the North American savages, even though
her machinations promised to terminate in the restoration of “the
brightest jewel of her crown.” In November, 1794, three months after
Wayne’s victory, Mr. Jay concluded his commercial treaty, in which it
was stipulated that the western posts should be surrendered by the
first of June, 1796, which was accordingly done; and in the summer
of 1795, as we have seen, the treaty of Greenville was made with the
Indian tribes.--The quiet thus restored was deceitful, and temporary
in its duration.
[Sidenote: SEIZURES BY THE ENGLISH.]
The treaty of Mr. Jay provided, among other things, for compensation
for British spoliations on American commerce, growing out of the war
with France; yet the ratifications of that instrument had scarcely
been exchanged, when outrages of the same character, but greater in
degree, were committed. Taking advantage of the distracted state of
affairs on the continent, the enterprising citizens of America had
extensively engaged in the carrying trade; and their commerce had
increased with so much rapidity, that the jealousy of England was
again awakened. Large quantities of American provisions were also
shipped to Europe, and especially to France, and to her possessions
in the West Indies, the prices paid for which, during the continuance
of hostilities, afforded handsome profits; but this interfered,
very materially, with the determination of England, by means of her
maritime supremacy, to starve the French people into an abandonment
of their republican notions, and to prevent it, she caused blockades
to be declared, which were enforced by no suitable naval power, and
orders to be issued, in defiance of the law of nations, requiring
neutral vessels to be seized though not carrying articles contraband
of war.
Remonstrance on the part of the authorities of the United States, was
of no avail. The example set by England was followed by France--every
act of injustice on the one side being succeeded by a still more
odious one on the other. The treaty of Amiens, in 1802, afforded the
Americans a brief respite; but, on the renewal of the war, in the
following year, seizures and condemnations of our vessels became more
frequent than ever. England joined the coalition formed to establish
Continental despotism on a firmer basis, and restore the Bourbon
dynasty to the throne which they had disgraced; and she stopped at
nothing to accomplish her purposes. Not content with watching the
ports of France, she sent her privateers and vessels of war, under
her pirate flag, to hover on our coast, and plunder our commerce. Her
navy having been seriously reduced, in men, by the long continued
warfare in which she had been engaged, she likewise resorted to the
impressment of American seamen, to fill up the complements of her
crews. Large numbers of sailors were taken from our merchantmen; and,
to conclude these high-handed offences, the frigate Chesapeake was
despoiled of a portion of her crew, on the twenty-second of June,
1807.
In the meantime the emissaries of Great Britain had been busy
among the savages on the Northwestern frontier. So complete and
irrefragable were the proofs furnished to Congress of this fact,
that, in 1797, a law was passed to prevent the tampering of
foreign agents with the Indians, which imposed severe penalties
and punishments. This law was easily evaded, and it was therefore
ineffectual. The Indians were invited to the British posts; they were
flattered and caressed, and loaded with gifts and favors; their minds
were soured; and no means were left untried to keep up a constant
strife between them and the settlers. It has often been said, that
the interference of British agents in this particular existed only
in imagination, and that the Indians were provoked to hostilities by
acts of violence committed by the Americans. Doubtless, there were
isolated cases of wrong and injustice, which cannot, and should not,
be palliated or excused; but it is idle to suppose, that the settlers
generally would have so causelessly endangered their own security,
and so recklessly jeoparded the lives of those who leaned on them for
protection, and looked up to them for sympathy and love.
[Sidenote: TAMPERING WITH THE INDIANS.]
Governor Harrison was not an indifferent, nor, from his position, an
uninterested spectator, of these events. The movements of the British
emissaries did not escape his attention; he repeatedly cautioned
his government against their designs, and labored incessantly to
counteract them. He endeavored in every way to conciliate the
savages, but his efforts were often frustrated by the unseen power
so long felt in these border troubles. When the attack on the
Chesapeake was made known in the United States, it excited a general
sentiment of indignation. He shared deeply in this feeling, and
embraced the first public opportunity to make known his opinions.
In his speech delivered on the eighteenth of August, 1807, before
the General Assembly of Indiana Territory, at their regular session,
he referred, in emphatic terms of condemnation, to the conduct of
the British agents who were secretly instigating the Indians on the
frontier, and, avowing himself in favor of immediate hostilities,
alluded to the affair of the Chesapeake, as being necessary, perhaps,
to arouse the American people from their lethargy, and awaken them
to the importance of teaching other countries and governments, that
“a nation of freemen,” to quote his own language, “are not to be
insulted with impunity”!
France, at length, ceased her unjust and oppressive measures; but
England refused to abandon her position. Embargo and non-intercourse
were tried in vain. The commercial relations of the country suffered
more and more. Jefferson and Madison both desired peace; yet,
notwithstanding their pacific inclinations, affairs daily grew worse,
and war seemed inevitable. While matters were fast verging towards
the crisis, the agents of Great Britain were actively engaged among
the Northwestern Indians. Governor Harrison watched their movements
with a vigilance that never slumbered, and sought by every means in
his power to defeat their plans and combinations, and, at least,
to prevail upon the Indians not to take up arms in favor of either
party, in case hostilities should commence between England and the
United States.
In the winter of 1810–11, crowds of Indian warriors collected around
the British posts in Upper Canada,--their war-plumes streaming from
their scalp locks, and their checks disfigured with the war-paint;
and when the sweet notes of the blue robin, the welcome harbinger of
spring, were heard echoing through the western forests, they went
forth upon their bloody mission. Nature’s hymn of melody was hushed,
as their shrill war-whoop resounded through valley and woodland, and
the heavens became resplendent with the glow of blazing ricks and
cabins.
[Sidenote: COUNCIL AT VINCENNES.]
Meanwhile Governor Harrison had succeeded in partially conciliating
the Kickapoos, and some other tribes, and had effected the purchase
of a large tract of land from them. It was the anxious desire of the
General Government, to secure, at every hazard, the neutrality of
the Indian tribes, in the event of a collision with Great Britain.
This was regarded as of paramount importance; for the sad experience
of the past had shown how much they were to be feared and dreaded,
particularly when the military strength and resources of the nation
should be employed in a contest with a powerful opponent. Governor
Harrison faithfully reflected the views, and carried out the wishes
of those whom he represented, and in the summer of 1811, a council
was held at Vincennes, for which extensive preparations were made,
and at which the leading, and most influential chiefs, of the
Northwestern tribes, were present, by his invitation. The object of
this assemblage was, to conclude a more general treaty, and complete
the efforts which had been made to induce the Indians to remain
neutral.
Among the forest warriors who came to Vincennes, in pursuance
of the summons of Governor Harrison, was Tecumseh, the Shawano
chief,--conspicuous, then, for his tall and manly frame, his earnest
and thrilling eloquence, his hostility to the whites, his boldness,
bravery, and sagacity, and his feats of daring in the chase and valor
on the war-path; and afterwards celebrated, for the ascendancy he
acquired over his red brethren, and for his steadfast devotion to the
English cause. Deep rankling in his heart there had long existed a
feeling of inveterate hatred towards the American people, which had
been carefully nurtured and cherished. Several years previous, he had
formed the project of uniting the tribes, north, south, and west of
the United States, in a combination, to refuse to sell any portion
of their remaining lands, to resist every effort to dispossess
them, and, if possible, to drive back the white settlers from the
Mississippi valley. Motives of ambition may have been mingled with
his aspirations, and it is not improbable, that he looked forward to
the day when a grand native confederacy should be established beyond
the Alleghanies, with himself as its leader and head.
The project of this “forest-born Demosthenes” was a vast one,
and he devoted himself with untiring zeal and pertinacity to its
accomplishment. His exertions were powerfully seconded by his
brother, Tensquataway--so well known as the Shawnee Prophet, or
Impostor. The latter was blind of one eye, and lacked the oratorical
powers of Tecumseh; but, claiming to receive direct revelations
from the Great Spirit, which, though always possessing a singular
resemblance to the public harangues of his brother, he imparted to
his savage hearers,--and availing himself of that superstitious
reverence, that, in a rude and uncultivated people, renders them so
impressible, so credulous, and so easy to be governed and directed,
by the practice of rites and incantations which are said to have
thrilled and terrified the hearts of those who witnessed them--he
acquired an influence second only to that of the chieftain whose
ambitious designs he hoped to further. Tecumseh had already visited
most of the Northwestern tribes, and was only waiting for the
anticipated war with England, to marshal his bands and lead them out
under her banner, hoping with her assistance to accomplish the great
object he had so much at heart; and he now appeared in the council
held at Vincennes, not to bury the tomahawk and smoke the calumet of
peace, but to remonstrate against the purchase from the Kickapoos and
other tribes, and hurl the gauntlet of defiance.
[Sidenote: SPEECH OF TECUMSEH.]
What excited the indignation of Tecumseh, more than all, was the
claim of the white man to superiority, and the arrogance, as he
termed it, evinced in calling the Indians his children. Upon the
opening of the council, Governor Harrison kindly handed him a chair,
saying, at the same time, in a courteous, yet dignified tone, “Your
father offers you a seat.” “_My father!_”--exclaimed the chief, while
he drew his form up to its full height, and his eye flashed with the
fire of insulted pride--“_My father!_--the Sun is my father, and
the Earth my mother; she gives me sustenance, and I will rest on her
bosom!” Thus speaking he seated himself upon the ground, with as
lofty and commanding an air, as if the green sward beneath him had
been the throne of the Cæsars.
After the preliminary business of the council was disposed of,
Tecumseh rose, and in a strain of impassioned eloquence, which has
rarely been equalled, and never, perhaps, surpassed, by any native
orator, reviewed the conduct of the whites, and the wrongs of the
Indians, from the time when the former first disembarked on the
Atlantic coast, to that moment--insisting that the land was given
by the Great Spirit to the red men in common, and that no portion
of it could be sold without the consent of all. His speech was well
calculated to inflame the prejudices, and arouse the passions, of
his savage listeners, and when he had concluded, Governor Harrison
commenced a reply. While the latter was speaking, Tecumseh, carried
away by his emotions, sprang to his feet, and, grasping his tomahawk,
boldly charged the governor with having uttered a falsehood. Twenty
or thirty of the warriors followed the example of the chief, and
instantly arrayed themselves in a hostile attitude.
Governor Harrison was no “weak-heart;”[9] nor was he to be
intimidated by menace. Anticipating a sudden outburst of ill-temper,
as he had discovered some unfriendly indications, he had posted a
guard of soldiers within call. At the signal, they darted forward to
take part in the threatened struggle. But Tecumseh was as politic
as he was brave; he saw that the time had not yet come for him to
strike; and he wisely avoided a conflict. The council was broken up,
however; and all hope of securing the neutrality of the Indians was
abandoned. The savages returned to their homes in the wilderness,
and shortly after renewed their outrages, murdering the frontier
settlers, plundering and burning their homes, and destroying or
carrying off large quantities of property.
Governor Harrison’s decision was soon taken. Having obtained
permission from the government to march into the Indian country
with a military force, he made his preparations with his accustomed
promptness and energy. Orders were sent to Colonel Boyd, of the
4th infantry, then at Pittsburgh, to join him forthwith with his
regiment, and a strong militia force, part of whom were mounted, were
imbodied in Kentucky and Indiana--the citizens gladly responding to
the call of patriotism--and marched to Vincennes. Leaving that place
at the head of about fourteen hundred men, considerably less than one
half being regulars, the governor moved up the Wabash. About fifty
miles above Vincennes he constructed a stockade fort, afterwards
known as Fort Harrison, and then directed his course, without loss of
time, to Tippecanoe, the Prophet’s Town, which lay on the west bank
of the Tippecanoe river, not far from its junction with the Wabash.
[Sidenote: BATTLE OF TIPPECANOE.]
On approaching the Indian town, on the sixth of November, Governor
Harrison proceeded slowly and cautiously; as the enemy’s warriors
were frequently seen flitting through the woods in advance of the
army, and their scouts were discovered posted on the hills in every
direction. Within a short distance of the village, he was met by
the principal chiefs--Tecumseh himself being absent on a mission
to the southern tribes--who, in reply to Harrison’s demand of
satisfaction for the outrages which had been perpetrated, proposed
that an amicable conference should be held on the following morning,
and that, in the interim, neither party should commit any act of
hostility. During the day he had made repeated efforts, without
success, to bring the Indians to a parley, and he still distrusted
their sincerity; but, being willing to grant them favorable terms of
peace, if his demands were complied with, he acceded to their request.
Orders were now issued to encamp for the night. Majors Clarke and W.
Taylor were sent forward to select a suitable position, and on their
report Governor Harrison marched his command to an elevated knoll
of dry oak land, rising in the midst of the open prairie, about one
mile northwest of the village. The horses were picketed, the guards
posted, and every preparation made for the bivouac. Having partaken
of their evening meal, the Americans lay down upon the bare earth,
to refresh their wearied limbs. From his long acquaintance with the
character of Indian warfare, Governor Harrison was familiar with the
arts and devices of the savages; and apprehending treachery, and
knowing, that, if attacked at all, it would be under cover of the
darkness, he required his men to sleep on their arms, and directed
that the order of encampment should be the order of battle.
The troops were arranged in two columns, separated on the left, one
hundred and eighty yards, and about half that distance on the right.
The front line consisted of the first battalion of the 4th infantry,
under Major Floyd, flanked, on the right, by two companies, and on
the left by one company, of the regiment of Indiana militia, under
Colonel Bartholomew; and the rear line was composed of the second
battalion of the 4th infantry, under Captain Baer, flanked by four
companies of the Indiana militia, under Lieutenant-Colonel Decker.
Two companies of Indiana and Kentucky rifles, under General Wells,
were thrown out to cover the left flank, and Captain Spencer’s troop
of Indiana rifles was posted on the right. Two troops of dragoons
were stationed in rear of the left flank, and one in rear of the
front line, under Major Daviess. The left front and left rear
angles,--that flank being the most exposed to an attack,--were turned
by a portion of the regular troops. A strong guard was also detailed,
each man of which was instructed to be prompt and vigilant. In the
event of an assault, the different corps were ordered to maintain
their respective positions till they were relieved; and the cavalry
were directed to parade on foot, with their swords and pistols, and
wait for orders.
[Sidenote: ATTACK ON THE LEFT.]
These dispositions being completed, Governor Harrison lay down among
his men, having his horse near him, saddled, and in readiness for him
to mount at a moment’s warning. Hour after hour went by in silence.
The camp fires gleamed brightly in the distance till long after
midnight, when they were suffered partially to die away. The cold
chilling wind moaned dismally as it swept through the encampment,
gently lifting the locks of many a tired sleeper who had looked
for the last time on the setting sun, and fanning into a brighter
glow the smouldering embers of the watch-fires. The beams of the
young moon struggled almost vainly to pierce through the thick
veil of clouds, from which a drizzling rain descended that hissed
and sputtered as it fell on the heated ashes. The hour of darkness
which precedes the dawn had nearly passed, when the governor rose
from his rude couch, and ordered the réveille to be beaten. He then
sat down before the fire, and commenced a conversation with some
of his officers. While thus engaged, the stillness was suddenly
broken, by the sentinels discharging their pieces, on the left of the
encampment, and a fierce and hideous yell that roused every man from
his slumbers.
Wistful and inquiring glances were at once turned towards the quarter
from whence the alarm proceeded; the cry, “To arms!--To arms!” was
raised on every side; and the wild slogan of the savage bands, rising
higher and higher as the conflict deepened, was echoed far down the
valley of the Wabash. For a few moments the encampment presented a
scene of confusion; but the active exertions of Governor Harrison,
Colonel Boyd, and other officers, soon restored order and discipline.
At first the attack was partially successful. The stealthy approach
of the enemy was not observed until they were in the immediate
vicinity of the pickets. It was their intention to creep up to
the sentinels as close as possible, and then to spring upon them,
and kill them, before they could fire; but, on finding that they
were discovered, and the alarm given, they gave a deafening yell,
rattled their deer hoofs--by which their movements in battle were
guided--and rushed furiously on the guard posted on the left flank.
The latter gave way almost instantly, and the whole brunt of the
onset was sustained by Captain Barton’s regulars, and the mounted
rifles of Captain Guiger, who occupied the left angle of the rear
line. In every other part of the encampment the fires had already
been extinguished, in obedience to the directions of Governor
Harrison;--but, on this flank, there was not sufficient time, and
the troops were exposed to the murderous aim of the Indian warriors,
without even the protection afforded by the darkness. Nevertheless,
they held their position gallantly, amid the storm of bullets that
whistled incessantly through their ranks, till they were reinforced
by two companies from the centre of the rear line, ordered to their
support by the governor.
Such was the desperation evinced by the savages, at the outset of
the action, that a number of them forced their way into the centre
of the encampment. Here, for a brief space, the contest was foot to
foot, and man to man. Fire brands were hurled, and rifles and muskets
clubbed. The scalping knife glistened momentarily, as it cut the
air in its descending course; and a dull crashing sound was heard,
as the tomahawk sank into the quivering brain of some unfortunate
victim. Louder and louder rang the Indian war-whoop; but the American
soldiers--their confidence now regained--returned shout for shout,
and yell for yell. Vengeance was not long deferred. Not one of the
enemy who had entered within the lines was suffered to escape:--all
were cut down, uttering, as they fell, in shrieking tones, their
bitter and unrelenting curse upon the white man.
[Sidenote: FORTUNATE CIRCUMSTANCE.]
A short distance in front of the American left, there was a small
group of sturdy oaks, which afforded shelter to a number of the most
skilful marksmen among the assailing band, who poured a galling
and intense fire, mingled with rapid flights of arrows, from their
concealment. Major Daviess instantly requested permission to charge
upon the cover with his cavalry. Governor Harrison granted the
request, and the major ordered his bugles to sound the charge. His
manly tones rung cheerily out on the night air, as he called upon his
men to follow. Nobly did they second him. The charge was made, and
the Indians scattered like the leaves of the forest before the fury
of the autumn blast; but it was the last bold stroke of him, whose
eloquence is yet remembered, and whose memory is still carefully
treasured, among the people of the West. By his side, too, fell
Colonel White, of the Indiana militia, like him, mortally wounded,
in that sanguinary fray. Disheartened by the loss of their leader
and many of their comrades, the cavalry fell back, and the Indians
recovered the ground, opening a still more destructive fire on their
opponents. As the dragoons retired, Captain Snelling promptly led
forward his company of the 4th infantry, and again drove the savages
from their shelter with the bayonet.
In the meantime, a heavy fire had been opened on the companies of
Captains Spencer and Warwick, on the right of the line. The former,
and his two lieutenants, were killed, and Captain Warwick was
mortally wounded. All immediate danger being over on the left flank,
Governor Harrison hastened to the right, to encourage the men to
remain firm, and maintain the ground till daylight. At the first
alarm, he had fortunately mounted the horse nearest him, without
waiting for his own to be brought up, which was well known to the
enemy. The dark eyes of many a red warrior glared fiercely, as they
were turned hither and thither through the encampment, in search of
the favorite steed of the governor. As he dashed to the right, he was
accompanied by his aid, Colonel Owen, who rode a horse similar in
color to that on which he had been mounted the previous day. A shower
of rifle balls fell around them. Colonel Owen was killed, and the
governor’s cravat was pierced by a bullet, that chanced not to injure
his person.
In passing to the right flank, the governor found the company of
Captain Robb, which had fallen back at the commencement of the
attack, in the centre of the camp. Leading them to the support of
Spencer’s and Warwick’s companies, he strengthened this part of
the line, and by his presence encouraged the men to more animated
exertions. A warm fire was now kept up till the early dawn, in front,
on both flanks, and partly in rear of the encampment; the sharp crack
of the rifle, and the prolonged rattle of musketry, mingling with
the shouts and cheers of the American soldiers. Governor Harrison
well knew, as the great father of the English drama had written years
before, that “advantage is a better soldier than rashness,” and he
did not hazard the safety of his command, though suffering severely
from the heavy fire, by any offensive movement, till the light of day
enabled him to ascertain the position and numbers of the enemy.
[Sidenote: THE INDIAN VILLAGE BURNED.]
But when the morning broke, a general charge was ordered. The left
wing, consisting of five companies of the 4th infantry, and a party
of dragoons, led by General Wells,--and the right, consisting of the
remaining companies of the 4th infantry and cavalry, and the mounted
rifles and militia,--moved rapidly upon the positions occupied by
the savages. The latter made no further effort to continue the
fight. Their desperate bravery had proved of no avail against the
disciplined valor and persevering courage of the American troops.
Hotly pursued by the gallant soldiers of Harrison, they fled in
dismay to the neighboring swamps and thickets, in whose impenetrable
recesses they at length found a secure retreat. The Prophet’s town
was entirely abandoned by its late occupants. Having collected his
wounded, and buried his dead, Governor Harrison advanced with his
forces to the village, which he ordered to be burned. The surrounding
district was also laid waste, and he then returned into the settled
country.
The battle of Tippecanoe was one of the bloodiest engagements
recorded in the annals of Indian warfare. It was bravely fought and
bravely won. The cautious foresight, the prudence and vigilance of
Governor Harrison, alone saved his little army from destruction. His
loss in killed and wounded, was one hundred and eighty-eight; that of
the enemy was supposed to be about the same.
Tecumseh, as has been mentioned, was absent at the time of this
engagement. Had he been present, perhaps the result might have been
different. When the particulars of the disaster reached him, he
affected to regard it as of little moment, and always spoke of it,
as the “unfortunate transaction that took place between the white
people and a few of his young men”; yet it is very evident that this
untoward occurrence preyed deeply on his spirits, since it tended,
probably more than any other single circumstance, to the defeat of
his plans. The result of the action intimidated many of the tribes
who were preparing to join his confederacy, and they immediately sent
deputations to Governor Harrison to sue for peace.
The general assembly of Indiana territory passed a resolution, at the
next session after the battle of Tippecanoe, complimenting Governor
Harrison in the highest terms, and the Legislature of Kentucky
also testified, in a similar manner, their approbation of “his
cool, deliberate, skilful, and gallant conduct.”--Thus was laid the
foundation of that military reputation, which secured him the regard
and esteem of his countrymen, and elevated him, in after times, to a
memorable distinction among the great men of the Nation.
[Sidenote: DECLARATION OF WAR.]
Another effect of the battle of Tippecanoe was soon witnessed. The
tone of the public press became more bold and warlike, and the public
temper was inflamed to the highest degree. Doubts as to the necessity
of a war with England were speedily transformed into settled
convictions. After a long and tedious negotiation, in the summer of
1811, reparation was offered for the attack on the Chesapeake; but
Great Britain abandoned not one of her objectionable positions, nor
ceased the piratical plunder of our commerce, so long stimulated and
encouraged by Lords Liverpool and Castlereagh. Forbearance could
no longer be regarded as a virtue; nor was peace desirable, when
it could only be preserved by the sacrifice of national honor and
dignity. War was therefore declared, on the eighteenth of June, 1812,
and publicly proclaimed by President Madison on the following day.
The declaration of war found Governor Harrison actively engaged in
the discharge of his duties as governor of the territory of Indiana,
and in his endeavors to secure the neutrality of the Northwestern
savages. The general sentiment of that section of the country would
then have applauded his selection as the commanding officer of the
forces destined to operate in that quarter; but the appointment was
conferred on William Hull, governor of the territory of Michigan, an
officer who had served with credit and ability during the war of the
Revolution.
The campaign of 1812 was signalized by General Hull’s invasion of
Canada, in July, and his humiliating surrender, at Detroit, in the
following August. When the tidings of this event were made known
in Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee, they were scarcely credited.
Subsequent information confirmed the rumor, however, and the
intelligence produced a spontaneous outburst of indignation. To
retrieve the tarnished honor of the country, was the first impulse
of every heart. An irrepressible feeling of enthusiasm pervaded
all classes. The people rose, in a mass, like the upheaving of the
ocean. Places of rendezvous were appointed, and the hunters of the
west flocked in crowds around the national standard--all animated by
one motive, and influenced by one desire. They were cheered, too,
by the approving smiles, and encouraged by the kind words of their
wives and mothers, their sisters, daughters, and sweet-hearts, whose
hands were constantly employed in furnishing them with clothing and
other necessaries for the march. Such was the alacrity displayed in
responding to the call to arms, that whole companies were frequently
enrolled, and equipped, in a single day!
In Ohio, the most patriotic exertions were made by Governor Meigs, to
fit the militia of that state for the field. In Kentucky, an unusual
degree of ardor was manifested. The fire of ’76 was rekindled in the
bosom of the veteran Shelby. Infected with the spirit prevailing
among their constituents, several members of Congress enrolled
themselves as privates, and cheerfully shouldered the rifle or
musket. Henry Clay, the eloquent advocate of the war on the floor
of Congress, though not under arms, appeared at the musters, and
addressed the volunteers in fervid and impassioned appeals to their
patriotism, that thrilled the hearts of those who heard him. Large
numbers of militia were also imbodied, in Virginia, and in the
western part of Pennsylvania. In Tennessee, likewise, the utmost
eagerness to take the field was exhibited by the hardy yeomanry, who
were doubtless influenced by the noble example of General Jackson and
his patriotic division.
[Sidenote: APPOINTED A MAJOR GENERAL.]
In a few weeks, about eight thousand men were collected at various
points on the Ohio river and in its vicinity. The selection of an
officer to take command of the army, was attended with considerable
difficulty; but it was finally determined, at a sort of military
caucus, at which Isaac Shelby, Judge Todd of the Supreme Court of the
United States, Mr. Clay, and other leading men, were present, that
Governor Harrison should be commissioned a major general by brevet,
by Governor Scott, of Kentucky, and temporarily invested with the
command. This was accordingly done, and General Harrison immediately
entered upon the performance of his duties. His military life had
been an irregular one, and his experience, therefore, was extremely
limited; yet he found himself placed at the head of a numerous body
of troops, under such disheartening circumstances, and in a season of
despondency and gloom. To add to his embarrassments, he discovered,
on examination, that everything was in confusion. Men there were in
abundance; but they were deficient in arms and ammunition, and poorly
provided with supplies of every kind. Still, he did not lack the
moral courage necessary to sustain him at so important a crisis, but
labored indefatigably to correct what had been done amiss, and to
secure the efficient action of the army placed under his orders.
The capture of Detroit, and the consequent occupation of all the
important posts in the territory of Michigan, and about the head
of Lake Erie, by the British troops, removed every restraint from
the savages on the frontier, who poured down from their northern
hives in torrents. The security of the border settlements against
their murderous incursions was the first object to be attained; and
in order to accomplish this effectually, it was necessary to move
without delay to the relief of the frontier posts,--particularly Fort
Harrison, on the Wabash; and Fort Wayne, at the confluence of the
St. Mary’s and St. Joseph’s, which form the Maumee, or Miami of the
Lakes, as it was originally called. It was determined to penetrate
the Indian country in two columns; one, under General Harrison, being
ordered to rendezvous at Cincinnati and Urbanna, and the other, under
General Hopkins, of the Kentucky militia, at Vincennes.
General Harrison put his troops in motion from Cincinnati, on the
twenty-ninth of August, and reached Piqua on the thirtieth instant,
with about twenty-five hundred men. Here he completed his final
arrangements, and received his military stores; and, on the sixth of
September, he resumed his march for Fort Wayne, where he arrived on
the twelfth, to the great joy of the garrison, which consisted of
only seventy men. The post had been for several days invested by a
large body of Indians who resorted to every stratagem and device to
induce the garrison to surrender, and, failing in this, made repeated
attempts to carry the fort by assault. On hearing of the approach
of General Harrison, the savages retreated precipitately, after
destroying everything outside the works.
On his arrival at Fort Wayne, General Harrison forthwith organized
two expeditions to lay waste the Indian villages. Colonel Wells, of
the 17th infantry, was dispatched on the fourteenth of September,
with his regiment, and that of Colonel Scott of the Kentucky militia,
and two hundred mounted rifles, against the Potowatomie town on the
upper St. Joseph, which disembogues into Lake Michigan. Another
detachment, commanded by General Payne, consisting of two Kentucky
regiments, under Colonels Lewis and Allen, and one company of
mounted men, marched against the Miami villages. Both expeditions
were successful. Nine Indian towns, which had been abandoned by the
inhabitants, on the approach of the American troops, were utterly
destroyed; the wigwams and wooden huts were burnt, and the growing
corn cut up.
[Sidenote: DEFENCE OF FORT HARRISON.]
Meanwhile, the column under General Hopkins, which had rendezvoused
at Vincennes, had moved to the relief of Fort Harrison. This post
was occupied by Captain Z. Taylor, of the 7th infantry, with a
feeble garrison of fifty men, not one half of whom were effective.
On the night of the fourth of September, it was assaulted by between
four and five hundred Indians, who succeeded in firing one of the
block-houses, in which a large quantity of spirits was stored.
The flames spread with great rapidity, and the garrison were fast
giving way to despair, when Captain Taylor directed the roofs of the
adjoining barracks to be removed. This was quickly accomplished, and
the fire prevented from extending to the other buildings in the fort.
Animated by the heroic example of their commander, and reässured by
the admirable coolness and presence of mind which he had exhibited,
the soldiers then engaged in the defence of the post, with a courage
akin to desperation. The assailants failed to make any further
impression, and after daylight on the morning of the fifth, the
American fire became so destructive, that they moved out of range.
They lingered near the post during the day, but retired early on the
following morning, though they still hovered in the vicinity, keeping
watch on the principal roads, cutting off the communications with
the fort, and committing their depredations through the surrounding
country.
The long-continued anxiety of the garrison was relieved on the
sixteenth of September, by the arrival of Colonel Russell, with
eleven hundred men, and a few days later General Hopkins came up
with the remainder of his column. Preparations were now made for an
expedition against the Peoria villages, on the Illinois river, and
other Indian towns on that stream and the Wabash, which had been
determined on previous to the march of the troops from Vincennes. It
was agreed that Colonel Russell should proceed directly across the
country, with his corps of Kentucky rangers, and a party of mounted
rifles under Governor Edwards of Illinois Territory, three hundred
and sixty men in all; and that General Hopkins, with the main body,
should advance by a more northern route, and effect a junction with
him at the Peoria towns. Another detachment, of eighty men, under
Captain Craig, was ordered to move up the Illinois, and join them at
the same place.
[Sidenote: INDIAN TOWNS DESTROYED.]