the most opulent and powerful of any that lie to the west of India; it
is bounded on the west by Turkey in Asia, north by Caucasus, the Caspian
Sea, and Asiatic Russia, east by Afghanistan and Beloochistan, and south
by the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea. The Persians, as a nation, first
rose into notice on the ruins of the great empires founded on the
Euphrates. Babylon was taken by Cyrus in 638 B.C., and soon after he
extended it more widely than any that had been previously established in
the world. It comprised, on one side, the west of India, and on the
other, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt; and the valor, indeed, with which
the Greeks defended their small territory, alone prevented him from
annexing a considerable part of Europe to his domains. After a feeble
struggle, it succumbed to the brave and disciplined armies of Alexander,
who won the entire empire of Darius Codomanus for his own by force of
arms, in 331. After his death, his immense possessions were divided
among his generals; but Greeks and Greek sovereigns continued during
several centuries to reign over Western Asia. About 2 B.C. Artaxerxes
founded the monarchy of the Parthians; and in 3 A.D. the dynasty of the
Sassanidæ arose, who restored the name, with the religion and laws, of
ancient Persia. They were overthrown by the Mohammedan invaders, who
suffered in their turn from the successive invasions of the country by
the descendants of Genghis Khan, Tamerlane, and the Turks, who entirely
changed the aspect of Western Asia. At length, in 1501, a native dynasty
again arose, under Ismael Shah, who placed himself on the throne. After
the reign of Abbas the Great, who died in 1628, the princes of the Safi
dynasty became enervated by luxury and dissipation, and Persia, in the
beginning of the last century, was overrun by the Afghans, who carried
fire and sword throughout the whole country, and reduced its proudest
capitals to ashes. The atrocities of the Afghans were avenged, and the
independence of Persia vindicated, by Nadir Shah; but though the
victories of this daring chief threw a lustre on his country, it was
almost torn to pieces after his death by civil war, till the fortune of
arms gave a decided superiority to Kerim Khan. His death gave rise to
another disputed succession, with civil wars as furious as before. At
length Aga-Mohammed, a eunuch, raised himself in 1795 by crimes and
daring to the sovereignty, and not only held it during his lifetime, but
transmitted it to his nephew, who assumed the title of Feth Ali Shah,
and subdued the rebellious tribes in Khorassan, but was dragged into a
war with Russia, in which he lost the power of Derbend and several
districts on the Kur. In 1848, Nasr-ed-Din, the great-grandson of Feth
Ali, succeeded to the throne, and in consequence of the capture of Herat
by the Persians in 1856, war was declared against them by Great Britain.
Bushire was occupied, and the Persian troops were twice defeated by Gen.
Outram at Kooshab and Mohammerah in the following year. These victories
were followed by the conclusion of a treaty of peace, April, 1857, and
the evacuation of Herat by the Persians in the month of July.
=Personnel= (_Fr._). All the officers and men, military and civil,
composing an army, or any part of one, as opposed to _matériel_.
=Personnel of a Battery.= All officers and men necessary for the
manœuvre, management, and care of a battery.
=Perspective.= Is the art of drawing the resemblance of objects on a
plane surface, as the objects themselves appear to the eye, etc.
=Perth.= The principal town of Perthshire, and formerly the metropolis
of Scotland, situated on the Tay, which is crossed here by a fine stone
bridge, 33 miles from Edinburgh. It is one of the most ancient towns of
Scotland. It is a generally received opinion that Perth was built and
fortified by Agricola, who erected a citadel to maintain his conquests,
and check the wild spirit of the savage natives. In 1298, after the
battle of Falkirk, Edward I. fortified Perth and rebuilt the walls in
the strongest manner. The worthy burgesses of this town seem to have
been men of mettle in those days, and on various occasions sallying
forth from behind their walls, set fire to the castles of their haughty
neighbors, when the latter had forbidden their vassals to carry
provisions to the city. In the year 1311, Robert Bruce laid siege to the
town, but was obliged to withdraw his troops, after various unsuccessful
attempts to take it; but subsequently, choosing a dark night, he led a
selected band of determined men against it, scaled the walls, and
carried the town sword in hand, the king himself being the second man
who entered the place. About the beginning of the 14th century, the
famous combat between the Clan Chattan and the Clan Quhele, or Clan Kay,
took place on the North Inch, and was decided in favor of the former,
partly by the bravery of a citizen or burgess called Harry Wind, whom
the chief of the Clan Chattan had engaged on the spot to supply the
place of one of his men who had failed to appear. In 1544, the regent,
at the instigation of Cardinal Bethune, turned Lord Ruthven, provost of
the town, out of his office, and conferred it upon Chartres of Kinfauns.
The citizens, however, resisted the attempt, and repulsed, in a smart
skirmish, the cardinal’s nominee, who came to enter upon his duties at
the head of an armed force. In 1559, after a riotous insurrection,
during which the Catholic churches were demolished, the queen determined
to inflict the severest vengeance on the Reformers. Both parties took
the field; negotiations ensued; Perth was thrown open to the queen, and
occupied by a French garrison. Relief from the insolence and exactions
of the garrison was only obtained after a regular siege by the
Reformers. On June 26, Lord Ruthven attacked the town on the west, and
Provost Halyburton of Dundee fired into it from the bridge, and speedily
obliged the garrison to capitulate. Subsequently, Argyle, and Stewart,
prior of St. Andrews, marched out of Perth with 300 citizens, resolved
to prosecute the Reformation, or perish in the attempt. The people
joined them everywhere as they proceeded, and before they reached
Stirling their numbers had increased to 5000. The gates of Stirling and
every other town in their way were thrown open to receive them. They,
without violence, took possession of Edinburgh, cast the images out of
its churches, and placed in them ministers of the Reformation.
=Peru.= A republic of South America, formed out of the former Spanish
viceroyalty of the same name. The first information received of the
country by the Spaniards was obtained from a young cacique in the
neighborhood of the Isthmus of Darien about the year 1511. In 1513,
Vasco Nuñez de Balboa crossed the mountains which separated the two
oceans, and took possession of the Pacific in the name of the king of
Castile. He extended his discoveries many leagues southward, but appears
not to have reached the territory of Peru. In 1525, Francisco Pizarro, a
soldier of mean birth but of daring spirit, who had accompanied Balboa
in the previous expedition, embarking at Panama with about 100 men,
landed in Peru, and spent three years in exploring the country. Having
returned to Spain with presents of gold and jewels for the king, he was
sent out with orders to effect the conquest of the newly-discovered
country. Recrossing the ocean with 180 men and 27 horses, he again set
sail from Panama, and receiving some further reinforcements at Puerto
Viejo and Puna, now considered himself in a fit position to enter upon
the proper scene of his labors. He accordingly crossed over to Tumbez,
and there learned that the country had for some time been distracted by
a civil war between Huascar and Atahuallpa, two sons of the late inca.
Pizarro saw at once the importance to him and his cause of this state of
the country. After some time spent in reconnoitring, he fixed upon a
fertile spot in the rich valley of Tangarala as a site for a settlement.
Here he established a town which he called San Miguel. On September 24,
1532, leaving 50 men as a guard for this new settlement, he started out
with 167 men, 67 of whom were cavalry, to meet the inca Atahuallpa, who
now victorious over his brother was encamped with his army about ten or
twelve days’ journey off. His force was everywhere received with
kindness; an envoy from the inca was sent with presents to meet and
invite him to an interview at Caxamarca. The Spaniards arrived here
November 15, 1532, and treacherously prepared to use the unsuspecting
kindness of the Peruvians as the means of their destruction. When at the
appointed time the inca accompanied by his nobles and retinue was
proceeding to the place of interview, he and his followers were assailed
by the Spaniards who were concealed in the neighboring buildings,
thousands of the unsuspecting and unarmed natives were slain, and
Atahuallpa himself taken prisoner. An immense ransom was offered for
him; it was accepted by Pizarro, who, however, basely refused to give up
his prisoner, but after a mockery of a trial put him to death. For many
years the country was in a state of war and anarchy, resulting finally
in Pizarro becoming master of Peru in 1546, and it became a viceroyalty
of Spain. In its subsequent history there is matter of little interest
till the war of independence, which was proclaimed in 1821 by Gen. San
Martin, and successfully terminated by Bolivar, who, after a succession
of engagements, the most notable of which was that of Ayacucho (which
see), finally drove the Spaniards from Callao, their last stronghold,
July 29, 1826. The country has since on several occasions been the scene
of those insurrections to which the states of Spanish America have been
subject. In 1879 war was proclaimed between Peru and Chili, which has
recently terminated in a complete victory for the latter.
=Perugia= (anc. _Perusia_). A city of Central Italy, 10 miles east of
the lake of the same name, and 85 north of Rome. It formed in ancient
times one of the twelve Etrurian republics. In conjunction with other
cities of Etruria, it long resisted the power of the Romans, but was
finally ruined by the latter, having been defeated in two engagements,
309 and 295 B.C., and becoming subject to Rome in 294. It is memorable
in the civil wars as the refuge of L. Antonius, the brother of the
triumvir, when unable to oppose the progress of Octavianus. It was held
by the latter for some months and was compelled to surrender through
famine, and burned to the ground in 40 B.C. It was afterwards rebuilt by
Augustus, and was captured by the Goths under Totila at the fall of the
Western empire. It was afterwards united to the Papal States, and in
1860 became part of the kingdom of Italy.
=Perugia, Lake of.= See TRASIMENUS LACUS.
=Perusia.= See PERUGIA.
=Pescara.= A town of Italy, province of Chieti. It was formerly strongly
fortified, and has stood many sieges.
=Peschiera.= A frontier town and fortress of Italy, in Lombardy, at the
south extremity of the Lake of Garda, 20 miles north-northwest from
Mantua. Peschiera commands the right bank of the river Mincio. During
the French republican war, it was a simple pentagon. Its fortifications,
however, have been greatly strengthened by the Austrians. It is defended
by walls and by forts, lunettes, fosses, and a covered way; and the
purpose which it is mainly intended to serve, besides that of forming an
intrenched camp capable of accommodating a considerable number of
troops, is to harass an army attempting to cross the Mincio by Goito or
Valeggio. It has been taken frequently by siege, by the French in 1796;
by the Austrians and Russians, 1799; by the French again, 1801; given up
by them, 1814; taken by the Sardinian troops under Charles Albert, May
30, 1848; retaken by Radetzky, 1849. It was invested by the Sardinians
in June, 1859, after the battle of Solferino. The conclusion of the
treaty of Villafranca, however (July 11, 1859), relieved Peschiera from
a siege, and it was included in the kingdom of Italy by treaty of
Vienna, 1866.
=Peshawur.= A city of British India, capital of the province of Peshawur
(or Peshawer), about 18 miles east of the eastern extremity of the
Khyber Pass. It was founded by the Mogul emperor Akbar. Runjeet Singh
took it after his victory over the Afghans at Noushera, and destroyed
many of its finest buildings.
=Pesth.= A city of Hungary, situated on the Danube, opposite to Buda,
with which it is connected by a bridge of boats three-quarters of a mile
in length. It was repeatedly taken and besieged in the wars of Hungary,
particularly in the long contests with the Turks. The great
insurrection broke out here September 28, 1848. Buda-Pesth was taken by
the Imperialists, January 5, 1849. The Hungarians afterwards defeated
the Austrians, who were obliged to evacuate it April 18, 1849; but the
latter, under Gen. Hentzi, occupied Buda, and a severe contest began
between the two parties. On May 4, Görgei, with an army of 40,000
Hungarians, occupied the heights above Buda, and began to bombard that
town; while the Austrians in their turn directed their artillery against
the lower city of Pesth. On May 16, the Hungarians made an unsuccessful
attack on Buda, but on the 20th the place was taken by assault, after an
obstinate and bloody struggle.
=Pestle.= An instrument used in the fabrication of gunpowder.
=Petards.= Are instruments used for blowing open gates, demolishing
palisades, etc. They consist of a half-cone of thick iron, filled with
powder and ball; they are usually fastened to a plank, and the latter is
provided with hooks to allow of its being attached securely to a gate,
etc. The petard has been almost universally superseded by the use of
powder-bags.
=Petardeer=, or =Petardier=. One who manages petards.
=Petelia=, or =Petilia= (now _Strongoli_). An ancient Greek town on the
eastern coast of Bruttium; founded, according to tradition, by
Philoctetes. It was situated north of Croton, to whose territory it
originally belonged, but it was afterward conquered by the Lucanians. It
remained faithful to the Romans when the other cities of Bruttium
revolted to Hannibal, and it was not till after a long and desperate
resistance that it was taken by one of Hannibal’s generals.
=Peterero=, or =Pedrero=. A short piece of chambered ordnance was
formerly so called.
=Petersburg.= A city of Dinwiddie Co., Va., on the south bank of the
Appomattox River, about 25 miles from Richmond. The city is one of
historic interest. It was twice occupied by the British forces as
headquarters during the Revolutionary war; but it is principally noted
as the scene of several sanguinary encounters during the civil war, and
for the obstinate and bloody defense which it made. On June 15-16, 1864,
two formidable assaults were made on it by the Army of the Potomac under
Gen. Grant, but they were repulsed with heavy loss. It was then
determined to invest the city, which was done a few days later. On July
30, another attempt was made to take it by storm, but without success.
The siege was prolonged with many indecisive operations until April 3,
1865, after a week’s bombardment it was evacuated by Gen. Lee, who
surrendered six days later.
=Petersburg, St.= The capital and most populous city of the Russian
empire, at the mouth of the Neva in the Gulf of Finland, 16 miles east
of Cronstadt, and 400 miles northwest of Moscow. It was founded by Peter
the Great, May 27, 1703. The peace of St. Petersburg, between Russia
and Prussia, the former restoring all her conquests to the latter, was
signed May 5, 1762. Treaty of St. Petersburg for the partition of
Poland, August 5, 1772. Treaty of St. Petersburg, led to a coalition
against France, September 8, 1805. Treaty of Alliance, signed at St.
Petersburg, between Bernadotte, prince royal of Sweden, and the emperor
Alexander; the former agreeing to join in the campaign against France,
in return for which Sweden was to receive Norway, March 24, 1812.
=Peterwalden= (Germany), Convention of. Between Great Britain and
Russia, by which a firm and decisive alliance between these powers was
made against France and the course of action against Napoleon Bonaparte
was planned, signed July 8, 1813. This alliance led to the overthrow of
Bonaparte in the next year.
=Peterwardein=, or =Varadin=. The capital town of Slavonia, Austria, and
the strongest fortress on the Danube, is situated on a scarped rock, on
the right bank of the Danube, opposite Neusatz, with which town it is
connected by a bridge of boats, defended by a strong _tête-de-pont_, 44
miles northwest of Belgrade. It is the residence of the general
commandant of the Slavonian military frontier, and of several
subordinate military authorities. It derives its present name from Peter
the Hermit, who here marshaled the soldiers of the first Crusade.
Peterwardein was taken by the Turks, July, 1526. In 1688, the
fortifications were blown up by the Imperialists, and the town was soon
after burned to the ground by the Turks; but at the peace of
Passarowitz, on July 21, 1718, it remained in the possession of the
emperor. It was here that, on August 5, 1716, the Austrians, under
Prince Eugène, obtained a great victory over the Turks under Grand Vizer
Ali; the latter then lost their last footing in Central Europe.
=Petra.= The _Sela_ of the Old Testament, the chief town of Arabia
Petræa, once the capital of the Idumeans, and subsequently of the
Nabatæi. It was subdued by A. Cornelius Palma, a lieutenant of Trajan’s,
and remained under the dominion of the Romans a considerable time, and
its destruction is supposed at length to have been wrought by the
Mohammedans.
=Petra.= An ancient town of Colchis, in the land of the Lazi, founded by
Joannes Tzibus, a general of Justinian, to keep these people in
subjection. It was situated on a rock near the coast, and was very
strongly fortified. It was taken by Chosroes in 541 A.D., and its
subsequent siege by the Romans is described by Gibbon as one of the most
remarkable actions of the age. The first siege was relieved; but it was
again attacked by the Romans, and was at length taken by assault, after
a long protracted resistance, in 551 A.D. It was then destroyed by the
Romans, and from that time disappears from history.
=Petra.= An ancient and strong fortress in Sogdiana, held by Arimazes
when Alexander attacked it.
=Petronel= (Fr. _petrinal_, or _poitronal_). A piece between a carbine
and a pistol (with a wheel-lock), which was used by the French during
the reign of Francis I.; it was held against the breast when fired. To
prevent any injury from its recoil, the soldier who used it was provided
with a pad.
=Petropaulovski.= A fortified town on the east coast of Kamtschatka, was
attacked by an English and French squadron August 30, 1854. They
destroyed the batteries, and a party of 700 sailors and marines landed
to assault the place, but fell into an ambuscade, and many were killed.
After this the Russians greatly strengthened their defenses, but on May
30, 1855, the allied squadron in the Pacific arriving here found the
place deserted. The fortifications were destroyed, but the town was
spared.
=Pettah.= In Southern India, a term applied to the _enceinte_ of a town,
as distinguished from the fortress by which it is protected.
=Pettman Fuze.= See FUZE.
=Pfaffendorf and Liegnitz.= See LIEGNITZ.
=Pfedersheim.= A town of Germany, in Hesse-Darmstadt, 4 miles northwest
from Worms. A battle was fought here, in 1555, which brought the
“Peasants’ war” to a termination.
=Phalanx.= The ancient Greek formation for heavy infantry, which won for
itself a reputation of invincibility. It may be described as a line of
parallel columns, rendered by its depth and solidity capable of
penetrating any line of troops. The oldest phalanx was the Lacedæmonian,
or Spartan, in which the soldiers stood 8 deep, but this was reduced to
4 men by Miltiades, in order to increase his front at the battle of
Marathon, 480 B.C. The Macedonian phalanx, as the latest form that
organization assumed, and as the shape in which the phalanx encountered
the military skill of the West, is deserving of description. The line
was 16 deep: a grand-phalanx comprising 16,384 men, composed of four
phalanxes or divisions, each under a general officer, called a
_phalangarch_; his command was divided into two brigades, or
_merarchies_, each of these comprising two regiments, or _chiliarches_,
of four battalions, or _syntagmata_, each, and each syntagma of 16 men
each way, making a perfect square. The Roman legion was far superior to
the phalanx.
=Phalsbourg.= A strong town of Alsace, department of La Meurthe,
Northeast France. It was ceded to France in 1661, and its fortress
erected by Vauban, 1679. It checked the progress of the victorious
allies both in 1814 and 1815, and withstood the Germans from August 16
to December 12, 1870, when it capitulated unconditionally.
=Pharax.= One of the council of ten appointed by the Spartans in 418
B.C. to control Agis. At the battle of Mantinea in that year, he
restrained the Lacedæmonians from pressing too much on the defeated
enemy, and so running the risk of driving them to despair. In 396 B.C.
he laid siege with 120 ships to Caunus, where Conon was stationed, but
was compelled to withdraw by the approach of a large force.
=Pharsalus= (now _Fersala_, or _Pharsalia_). Anciently a town of
Thessaly, to the south of Larissa, on the river Enipeus, a branch of the
Peneus (now the Salambria), and historically notable mainly for the
great battle fought here between Cæsar and Pompey, August 9, 48 B.C.
Pompey had about 45,000 legionaries, 7000 cavalry, and a great number of
light-armed auxiliaries. Cæsar had 22,000 legionaries and 1000 German
and Gallic cavalry. The battle-cry of Cæsar’s army was “_Venus victrix_”
that of Pompey’s “_Hercules invictus_.” Cæsar’s right wing began the
battle by an attack on the left wing of Pompey, which was speedily
routed. Pompey fled into the camp, and his army broke up; Cæsar’s troop
stormed his camp about mid-day, and he himself, awaking as from
stupefaction, fled to Larissa, whither Cæsar followed him next day.
Cæsar lost about 1200 men. On Pompey’s side about 6000 legionaries fell
in battle, and more than 24,000 who had fled, were taken, whom Cæsar
pardoned and distributed among his troops.
=Pheon.= In heraldry, the barbed iron head of a dart; used also as a
royal mark, to denote crown property, and termed the _broad_, or _broad
arrow_.
=Philadelphia.= A city and metropolis of Pennsylvania, situated between
the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers. The city was settled and planned by
William Penn in 1682, and its name (City of Brotherly Love) given
through the Society of Friends, of whom he was the great leader in
America. It had a prominent position in the Revolution, and was in
possession of the British troops after the disastrous battles of
Brandywine and Germantown, until 1778. Being the second city of the
United States in wealth and importance, it has been ever forward in
promoting her interests.
=Philibeg.= See FILLIBEG.
=Philiphaugh.= Near Selkirk, Southern Scotland, where the Marquis of
Montrose and the royalists were defeated by David Leslie and the Scotch
Covenanters, September 13, 1645.
=Philippi.= A city of Macedonia. It was named after Philip II. of
Macedon, who conquered it from Thrace. Here Antony and Octavianus, in
two battles, defeated the republican forces of Cassius and Brutus, who
both committed suicide, October, 42 B.C.; this ended the republican
government of Rome.
=Phocæa.= The most northern of the cities of Ionia, was situated about
25 miles northwest from Smyrna. It was founded by a colony of Phocians,
led by two Athenians, Philogenes and Damon. Its citizens are said to
have been the first among the Greeks who extended their commercial
voyages to great distances; and its inhabitants abandoned their city
rather than submit to the Persians, 544 B.C. They settled in Italy, and
founded Velia. Massilia in France, and Alalia in Corsica, were colonies
of the Phocæans.
=Phocis.= A province of Greece Proper, or Hellas, bounded on the north
by the Ozolian Lokri, on the north by Doris, on the east by the Opuntian
Lokri, and on the south by the Gulf of Corinth. During the Peloponnesian
war, the Phocians were close allies of the Athenians. In 357 B.C. they
seized Delphi, and commenced the second Sacred war. They were opposed by
Thebes and other states, and were utterly subdued by Philip II. of
Macedon in 346.
=Phœnicia.= Is the name given by the Greeks and Romans to a certain
territory situated about 34°-36° N. lat., bounded by the Mediterranean
on the west, by Syria to the north and east, and Judæa to the south. Its
length may be said to have been about 200 miles, while its breadth never
exceeded 20 miles. The natives were the most eminent navigators and
traders of antiquity; their cities or allied states being Tyre, Sidon,
Berytus, Tripolis, Byblos, and Ptolemais, or Acre. From the 19th to the
13th century B.C., they established colonies on the shores or isles of
the Mediterranean, Carthage, Hippo, Utica, Gades, Panormus, and are said
to have visited the British Isles. Phœnicia was conquered by Cyrus, 537
B.C.; by Alexander, 332; by the Romans, 47; and after partaking of the
fortunes of Palestine, was added to the Ottoman empire, 1516.
=Phous-dan.= An East Indian term for a commander of a large body of
forces.
=Phrygia.= A country of Asia Minor. According to the division of the
provinces under the Roman empire, Phrygia formed the eastern part of the
province of Asia, and was bounded on the west by Mysia, Lydia, and
Caria, on the south by Lycia and Pisidia, on the east by Lycaonia (which
is often reckoned as a part of Phrygia) and Galatia (which formerly
belonged to Phrygia), and on the north by Bithynia. The kingdom of
Phrygia was conquered by Crœsus, and formed part of the Persian,
Macedonian, and Syro-Grecian empires; but, under the last, the
northwestern part was conquered by the Gauls; and a part west of this
was subjected by the kings of Bithynia; this last portion was the object
of a contest between the kings of Bithynia and Pergamus. The whole of
Phrygia was assigned by the Romans to the kingdom of Pergamus, after the
overthrow of Antiochus the Great in 190 B.C.
=Piacenza= (anc. _Placentia_). A city of Northern Italy, in the province
of the same name, on the right bank of the Po, 2 miles below the
confluence of the Trebbia. It is of an oblong form, surrounded by
ancient walls and ditches, and defended by a citadel, which was
garrisoned by the Austrians till 1859. Piacenza is first mentioned in
219 B.C., when a Roman colony was settled there. In 200 B.C. it was
plundered and burned by the Gauls, but rapidly recovered its prosperity,
and was long an important military station. It was the western terminus
of the great Æmilian road, which began at Ariminum on the Adriatic. In
later history, it plays an important part as one of the independent
Lombard cities.