was colonized by the French, near Detroit, in the latter half of the
17th century, but, like other French colonies in America, did not
progress rapidly. At the peace of 1763, it came, with the other French
possessions in North America, under the dominion of Great Britain, and
so remained till the breaking out of the American Revolution, when it
passed to the United States. On the expulsion of the French, the
celebrated Indian chief Pontiac seized the occasion to rid the country
of the hated whites by a general uprising, and simultaneous attacks on
all the forts of the English on the lakes. Mackinaw was taken by
stratagem, and the garrison mercilessly butchered. Detroit was besieged
for some months by Pontiac, with 600 Indians; but it held out till the
Indian allies, becoming weary of the siege, retired and left Pontiac no
choice but to make peace. The British surrendered Detroit to the United
States in 1796. In 1805, Michigan, which up to that period had been a
part of the Northwest Territory, was formed into a separate government.
In 1812, it became the scene of some stirring events in the war with
Great Britain. Lying contiguous to Canada, it was invaded in the very
commencement of that struggle, and its capital (Detroit) surrendered
August 15, 1812, by Gen. Hull, under circumstances which led to his
displacement from his command. Previous to this Fort Mackinaw had been
taken by the enemy. In January, 1813, a cruel massacre by the savages of
a party of American prisoners took place at Frenchtown, but soon after,
Gen. Harrison drove the enemy out of the Territory of Michigan, and
removed the seat of war into Canada. Michigan became an independent
member of the American Confederacy in 1837. During the civil war, she
contributed greatly to the cause of the Union, and sent over 90,000 men
to the field.
=Micmacs.= A tribe of Indians numbering about 4000, who reside
principally in New Foundland, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia.
They were formerly faithful allies of the French in their wars with the
New England colonies, and with the English, against whom they maintained
a hostile attitude until about 1760.
=Middle Ages.= The ages or period of time about equally distant from the
decline of the Roman empire and the revival of letters in Europe, or
from the 8th to the 15th century of the Christian era.
=Middle Assembling-bar.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, THE CAISSON.
=Middle-chest.= The front ammunition-chest on the body of the
caisson,--so called because it is between the hind chest and the
limber-chest when the caisson is limbered.
=Middle-man.= The man who occupies a central position in a file of
soldiers.
=Midea.= A town in Argolis, of uncertain site; is said to have been
originally called Persepolis, because it had been fortified by Perseus.
It was destroyed by the Argives.
=Midianites.= An Arab race, descended, according to Scripture, from
Midian, the son of Abraham by Keturah. They occupied the greater part of
the country between the north side of the Arabian Gulf and Arabia Felix
as far as the Plains of Moab. The Midianites were very troublesome
neighbors to the Israelites till Gideon’s victory over them (about 1249
B.C.), after which they gradually disappeared.
=Mignon= (_Fr._). Picked soldier, now called _élite_.
=Milan= (_Mediolanum_, capital of the ancient Liguria). A city of Italy,
the capital of the province of Lombardy, 78 miles northeast from Turin;
is reputed to have been built by the Gauls about 408 B.C. It was
conquered by the Roman consul Marcellus, 222 B.C. It was the seat of
government of the Western empire in 286; plundered by Attila in 452;
taken by the emperor Frederick I., 1158; it rebelled and was taken by
Frederick and its fortifications destroyed in 1162; but was rebuilt and
fortified in 1169. The Milanese were defeated by the emperor Frederick
II. in 1237; and the city was conquered by Louis XII. of France in 1499.
The French were expelled by the Spaniards in 1525, and the city annexed
to the crown of Spain in 1540; ceded to Austria, 1714. It was conquered
by the French and Spaniards in 1743; reverted to Austria upon Sicily and
Naples being ceded to Spain in 1748; seized by the French, June 30,
1796, retaken by the Austrians, 1799; regained by the French, May 31,
1800. The Milanese revolted against the Austrians, March 18, 1848, but
submitted August 5, 1848. Another insurrection was attempted in 1853,
but with disastrous results. On June 8, 1859, by the peace of Villa
Franca, Lombardy was annexed to Piedmont, and Victor Emmanuel became
sovereign of Milan.
=Milazzo= (anc. _Mylæ_). A fortified seaport on the north coast of
Sicily, 18 miles west of Messina. It was founded about 700 B.C., and has
been the scene of many battles. It was taken by Laches in 427 B.C. It
was off Mylæ that the Romans, under their consul Duilius, gained their
first naval victory over the Carthaginians, and took 50 of their ships,
260 B.C. Here also Agrippa defeated the fleet of Sextus Pompeius, 36
B.C. On July 20, 1860, Garibaldi with 2500 men defeated 7000
Neapolitans, at Milazzo, and compelled the garrison to evacuate the
fortress.
=Mileage.= An allowance for traveling, as so much by the mile;
especially in the United States, an allowance made to military officers
to defray the expenses of their journeys on duty when not traveling with
troops.
=Milesian.= A native or inhabitant of Ireland, descended according to
the legendary history of the country from King Milesius of Spain, whose
two sons conquered the island 1300 B.C., and established a new order of
nobility.
=Milesian.= Pertaining to Ireland, from the tradition that King Milesius
of Spain once conquered the country.
=Miletus.= A flourishing Greek city of Ionia, in Asia Minor, was
situated on the north side of the peninsula of Mt. Grion, at the
entrance of the Gulf of Latmus, nearly opposite the mouth of the
Meander. At the time of the Ionian emigration to Asia Minor it existed
as a town, but when the Ionians arrived in Asia, Neleus and a company of
his followers seized Miletus, put to death all the male inhabitants, who
were Carians or Leleges, and took the women for their wives. Miletus
became for a time a prosperous city under the rule of Lydia and Persia,
but in 500 B.C. it revolted against Persia, and after repeated defeats
in the field, the city was besieged by land and by sea, and finally
taken by storm in 494 B.C. The city was plundered and its inhabitants
massacred, and the survivors were transplanted to a place called Ampe,
near the mouth of the Tigris. The town itself was given up to the
Carians. Towards the end of the Peloponnesian war, Miletus threw off the
yoke imposed upon her by Athens, and in a battle fought under the very
walls of the city, the Milesians defeated their opponents; the Athenian
admiral, Phrynichus, abandoned the enterprise. In 334 B.C., Alexander
the Great took the city by assault, and destroyed a part of it, but it
continued to flourish, until it was destroyed by the Turks and other
barbarians.
=Milford Haven.= A town of Wales, in Pembrokeshire, 6 miles northwest
from Pembroke. Here the Earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., landed
on his way to encounter Richard III., whom he defeated at Bosworth,
1485.
=Milice.= An old term for militia.
=Militancy.= Warfare. This term is obsolete.
=Militant.= Engaged in warfare; fighting; combating; serving as a
soldier.
=Militantly.= In a militant manner. This term is rarely used.
=Militar.= Military. This term is obsolete.
=Militarily.= In a military or soldierly manner.
=Militarist.= One devoted to military pursuits.
=Military.= Pertaining to soldiers, to arms, or to war; having to do
with the affairs of war; as, a military parade or appearance; military
discipline. Engaged in the service of soldiers or arms; as, a military
man. Warlike; becoming a soldier; as, military bravery, military virtue.
Derived from the service or exploits of a soldier; as, military renown.
Conformable to the customs or rules of armies or militia; as, the
conduct of the officer was not military. Performed or made by soldiers;
as, a military election.
=Military.= The whole body of soldiers; soldiery; militia; the army.
=Military Academies.= The great improvements made in the art of war in
modern times, in weapons, drill, discipline, etc., has made warfare more
of a science and less of a trial of brute force than formerly, and hence
the necessity for a body of trained officers capable of moving,
directing, and bringing into effective operation all the appliances of
war with which modern armies are furnished. As this special training
cannot be obtained at ordinary educational establishments, special
schools for the purpose have been established in all civilized
countries. A few of them are here noted.
GREAT BRITAIN.--The _Royal Military Academy_, an establishment at
Woolwich, through which must pass all candidates for the artillery and
engineers. It was instituted in 1741, but the present structure was not
erected until 1805. It usually contains about 200 cadets. The age of
admission is sixteen, and the vacancies are open to public competition.
The parents or guardians have to make annual payments for the support
of the cadets as long as they remain at the academy, the amount being
greater for the son of a civilian than of a military or naval officer.
When the term of instruction--which comprises the subjects of a thorough
general education, the higher mathematics, fortification, gunnery, and
military duty--is completed, the cadets compete for vacancies in the
engineers and artillery, those who pass the best examination being
allowed a choice of either branch of the service. All who obtain
commissions in the engineers proceed to Chatham for further instruction
in their professional duties; the artillery cadets at once join the
artillery as lieutenants.
_Royal Military College, Sandhurst_, is an institution for the training
of candidates for commissions in the cavalry and infantry. The course is
limited to one year immediately before entering the army, and the
subjects of instruction confined to the higher mathematics, modern
languages, and military science. Entrance is on the nomination of the
commander-in-chief; and the payment by the cadets’ parents or guardians
varies according to their circumstances and rank. No payment is made for
what are called “Queen’s Cadets,” who must be orphans. Commissions in
the cavalry and infantry are given to the cadets in the order of merit
at the end of the year.
The _Staff College_ was founded in 1858, about 2 miles from Sandhurst,
for the purpose of giving higher instruction to 30 officers aspiring to
appointments on the staff. To be entitled to compete for entrance, an
officer must have been three years in active service, must have passed
the qualifying examination for a captaincy, and must have the
recommendation of his commanding officer. A very strict examination
decides which among the competitors shall be admitted to the college,
one only being eligible from any battalion. The course lasts two years.
At the end of each year there is an examination; that of the second
fixing the order of the candidates’ choice for staff employment. After
passing the Staff College the officer is attached for duty, for a short
period, to each of the arms with which he may not have already served.
He then becomes eligible for appointment to the staff, as opportunity
may occur. There are also the Royal School of Military Engineers at
Chatham, for the instruction of engineer officers, the Royal Military
School at Dublin, and professional schools for officers and enlisted
men, as the School of Musketry at Hythe, and the School of Gunnery at
Shoeburyness.
FRANCE.--The celebrated _Polytechnic School_ at Paris was established by
the National Convention, September 28, 1794. By a decree of July 16,
1804, Napoleon placed it under a military régime. No attempt being made
to impart a general education, candidates are required to have a
thorough general knowledge before they are admitted. The preliminary
examination of candidates for admission comprises mathematics, physics,
chemistry, history, German, etc.; in fact, the candidate to be
successful should have the degree of Bachelor of Science. Admission is
open to competition; a board of examiners passes through the country
once every year, and examines all who present themselves, possessing the
requisite qualifications of age, etc. A list is made out from the
proceedings of the board, and the number of candidates highest in order
of merit for whom there are vacancies admitted. The age of admission is
from sixteen to twenty years, or if the candidate is in the army, to
twenty-five. This school prepares students for various branches of the
public service, for the staff, engineers, artillery, for the corps of
hydrographical engineers, engineers of roads and bridges and of mines,
the department of powder and saltpetre, etc. The number of cadets is
usually about 350, and the course of instruction two years. After the
final examination the first 30 or 40 candidates usually select civil
employment under the government, those next in merit choose the
artillery and engineers, and are sent to the School of Application, to
pass through a technical course. The remaining students either fail to
qualify, and leave the school, or receive commissions in the line,
subordinate situations in the government service, civil or colonial, or
they retire into civil life altogether.
The _Special Military School_ at St. Cyr, near Versailles, was
established for the instruction of candidates for commissions in cavalry
and infantry. The age of admission is the same as for the Polytechnic
School, and pupils are entitled to partial or entire state aid if they
need it, as are also those of the Polytechnic. The course of instruction
is two years, at the end of which time the more promising students pass
to the Staff School, and thence, after a thorough course, to the
_état-major_ of the army; the remaining students pass as subalterns into
the cavalry and infantry, selecting the arm of the service in which they
desire to serve according to the order of merit in which they graduate.
There are also the School of Application for Engineers and Artillery,
the School of Application for the Staff, the Cavalry School at Saumur,
for one year’s instruction to officers of that arm, and the School of
Musketry at Vincennes.
PRUSSIA.--The Prussian system of military education differs from that of
France, in that competition is but sparingly resorted to, the object
being to give a good general and professional education to all the
officers, rather than a specially excellent training to a select few.
For this purpose there are established seven cadet schools, one senior,
at Berlin, and six junior, situated at Bensburg, Culm, Oranienstein,
Ploen, Potsdam, and Wahlstatt. The age of admission to the junior
schools is from ten to eleven years, and the usual course of instruction
is for four years, and two or three at the senior school, followed by
the finishing term of nine months at a division school, when graduates
are eligible to commissions. Some, however, are sent to the army to earn
their commissions as other candidates. Others pass an additional year at
the senior cadet school, in which case the term at the division school
is dispensed with. After completing their course at the junior schools,
students pass to the senior school without examination. They may also be
admitted to the senior school without passing through the junior grade,
provided they come up to the required standard of qualification.
Aspirants for commissions must enter the ranks, and within six months
pass a good examination in general and liberal knowledge if they are not
graduates of a cadet school. Those who are graduates are not examined.
After some further service the candidate goes for nine months to one of
the division schools, which are eight in number, situated at Anclam,
Cassel, Engers, Erfurt, Hanover, Metz, Neisse, and Potsdam. Here he
completes his professional education, and if he passes the final
examination, is eligible for the next vacancy in the line, but cannot be
commissioned unless the officers of the corps are willing to accept him
as a comrade. Candidates for commissions in the artillery and engineer
corps, after graduating from the cadet school or passing an examination
from the army, must pass nine months at the Artillery and Engineer
School, after which they receive a provisional appointment as
sub-lieutenants. Upon graduating, after two more terms of nine months
each, they are commissioned as lieutenants. But the culmination of
Prussian military education is the Staff School, or War Academy, which
presents the highest prizes in the profession, and competition for which
is open to all officers of the army who have had three years’ service,
and can produce testimonials of good conduct, ability, etc., from their
superiors. Admission is by competitive examination, usually about 40 of
the applicants being selected. The course of study lasts three years.
During three months of each year the officers are sent to do military
duty with arms of service or corps not their own. Of the 40 who pass
through the Staff School each year, 8 or 10 only are sent to the
topographical department of the staff. There they serve two or three
years, at the expiration of which time two are selected from the number,
and appointed captains on the staff. The remainder return to their
regiments or corps, sometimes receiving appointments in the division
schools.
AUSTRIA.--The Austrian military system of training is very elaborate,
and commences at an early age,--boys intended for military service
beginning their professional almost contemporaneously with their general
education. There are schools of various orders for training
non-commissioned officers and for officers, and senior departments for
imparting more extended instruction to both classes. Candidates for
appointment as non-commissioned officers pass by competition through
the lower houses, where they remain till eleven years old, the upper
houses, which detain them till fifteen, and the school companies,
whence, after actual apprenticeship to service, a few pupils pass to the
academies as aspirants for commissions, and the others are drafted into
the service as non-commissioned officers. For the education of officers
there are four cadet houses, each containing 200 pupils. The boys are
pledged to the service by their parents at the age of eleven, after
which the state takes charge of them. At fifteen they pass according to
qualification to the academy for the line, the engineer or artillery
academy, and four years later receive their commissions in the arms of
the service for which they have graduated. The young officer’s chance of
entering the Staff School--and therefore the staff--depends upon his
place at the final academic examination.
The _Staff School_ consists of 30 pupils selected by competitive
examination from all arms of the service, 15 entering each year. The
course of instruction is two years. To be qualified for admission a
candidate must have served two years with his regiment, and be over
twenty-one and under twenty-six years of age. The students receive
appointments in the staff corps according to the order of merit,
immediately after the final examination, if there are vacancies; if
there are none, they return to their regiments until vacancies occur. If
the successful candidate is a second lieutenant, he is promoted to the
rank of first lieutenant; if a first lieutenant, he is promoted captain
after three years’ service.
RUSSIA.--Has 22 military colleges for the guards and line, containing
over 7000 cadets, a school of ensigns for the guards, an artillery and
an engineer school, averaging over 8000 military students. There is also
an imperial staff school, into which 20 or 25 officers enter each year
after examination. The term of instruction is for two years. Upon
graduation, the most distinguished scholar is at once promoted to the
rank of captain on the staff, and all the graduates are, from time to
time, as vacancies occur, attached to the staff, but not immediately
promoted in it.
Italy, Spain, and other powers have also their military academies, but
those already given may be considered a fair type of all. It need only
be stated that the educational status of the Italian officers is
considered very high.