Ordnance Corps, is a most complete and rapid means for moving and
dismounting heavy guns. In it the hydraulic jack is placed upon a stand
over the gun, whereby the building-up of the crib-work of blocks, which
serves as a base for the jack to stand on, is dispensed with, and the
position of the jack has not to be changed during the operation of
raising or lowering a gun. The ordinary carpenter’s horse or trestle is
taken as the basis of the _hoisting_ apparatus. The cap of the trestle,
having to sustain the weight of the gun suspended at a distance of more
than 2 feet from the points of support, is a large, strong, and heavy
piece of timber, and the legs of the trestle have to be strongly braced.
The bolster, a strong piece of oak on top of the cap of the trestle, has
two mortices cut in it, one for a hoisting-bar _to pass through_, and
the other for the fulcrum-post to _rest in_. The fulcrum-post has a
recess cut on the top to receive the end of a lever and keep it in
place. The lever has a mortice through which the hoisting-bar, already
mentioned, passes; the latter is perforated with a series of holes
through which a pin passes, by which the end of the lever, under which
the hydraulic jack works, can be fastened to the hoisting-bar. The
hoisting-bar has a hook on its lower end to which the weight to be
raised is fastened by means of a sling.
=Gun-metal.= An alloy of nine parts of copper and one part of tin, used
for brass cannon, etc. (See BRONZE). The name is also given to certain
strong mixtures of cast iron.
=Gunner.= A soldier employed to manage and discharge great guns; an
artilleryman. In the U. S. service there is with each piece a gunner,
who gives all the executive commands in action. He is answerable that
the men at the piece perform their duties correctly.
=Gunner’s Calipers.= Are made of sheet-brass, with steel points. The
graduations show diameters of guns, shot, etc.
=Gunner’s Elevating Arc.= See ELEVATING ARC.
=Gunner’s Level=, or =Gunner’s Perpendicular=. Is an instrument made of
sheet-brass; the lower part is cut in the form of a crescent, the points
of which are made of steel; a small spirit-level is fastened to one side
of the plate, parallel to the line joining the points of the crescent,
and a slider is fastened to the same side of the plate, perpendicular to
the axis of the piece. This instrument is used to mark the points of
sight on pieces. By means of the bubble the feet or points of the
crescent are placed on a horizontal line on the base-ring or base-line,
the slider pushed down until the point rests on the base-ring or line,
and its position marked with chalk.
=Gunner’s Pincers.= Are made of iron with steel jaws, which have on the
end of one a claw for drawing nails, etc.
=Gunner’s Plummet.= A simple line and bob for pointing mortars.
=Gunner’s Quadrant.= Is a graduated quarter of a circle of sheet-brass
of 6 inches radius, attached to a brass rule 22 inches long. It has an
arm carrying a spirit-level at its middle and a vernier at its movable
end. To get a required elevation, the vernier is fixed at the indicated
degree, the brass rule is then inserted in the bore parallel to the axis
of the piece; the gun is then elevated or depressed until the level is
horizontal. There is also a graduated quadrant of wood, of 6 inches
radius, attached to a rule 23.5 inches long. It has a plumb-line and
bob, which are carried, when not in use, in a hole in the end of the
rule, covered by a brass plate.
=Gunnery.= The art of using fire-arms; but the term is commonly
understood as being restricted to the use or application to the purposes
of war of the larger pieces of ordnance, as cannon, mortars, and
howitzers. In its practical branch gunnery includes a just knowledge of
the construction of the several pieces of artillery, and of the
strength, tenacity, and resisting power of the materials of which they
are formed; of the method of mounting them upon strong, efficient,
well-proportioned, and conveniently constructed carriages; of the
proportions due to the strength of the powder and projectiles they
should carry; of the force and effect, and also of the manufacture of
gunpowder; and, generally, of all such mechanical arrangements and
appliances as may facilitate the movements and working of the guns,
etc., when prepared for action. But gunnery takes a yet far more
extensive range; for it may be said to be based upon nearly every branch
of the mathematical and physical sciences, and may be itself considered
as a science requiring the most intricate combinations of human
knowledge and mechanical ingenuity fully to comprehend and perfect. It
particularly requires an acquaintance with all experiments which may
have been made to ascertain the impetus of projection, the momentum of
bodies in motion, and the range and time of flight of projectiles with
given charges of gunpowder,--with the effect of the resistance of the
atmosphere upon projectiles propelled with different velocities, and the
laws of gravitation as affecting falling bodies; and with the various
causes, mechanical and otherwise, of the usual deflection of projectiles
in their course, when fired from a gun. See PROJECTILES and VELOCITY.
=Gunning.= The act of hunting or shooting game with a gun.
=Gun-pendulum.= A contrivance for obtaining initial velocities of
projectiles. The gun is suspended from a frame-work with its axis
horizontal. The velocity of the shot is deduced from the arc described
in the recoil. The apparatus is now nearly obsolete.
=Gun-platform.= See PLATFORM.
=Gunpowder.= A well-known explosive mixture, whose principal employment
is in the discharge, for war or sport, of projectiles from fire-arms,
and for mining purposes. The ingredients in gunpowder are saltpetre,
charcoal, and sulphur. Slightly different proportions are employed in
different countries. In the United States the proportions are 75 to 76
saltpetre, 14 to 15 charcoal, and 10 sulphur. Charcoal is the
combustible ingredient; saltpetre furnishes the oxygen necessary to
support a rapid combustion and to change the whole mass into gas, and
sulphur adds consistency to the mixture and intensity to the flame,
besides rendering the powder less liable to absorb moisture; increases
the volume of gas by preventing the formation of a solid potassium
carbonate, and by increasing the temperature.
In the _manufacture_ of ordinary powder, the operations usually employed
are _pulverizing_ the ingredients, _incorporation_, _compression_,
_granulation_, _glazing_, _drying_, and _dusting_.
The ingredients are _pulverized_ by placing each separately in barrels
which contain bronze or zinc balls, and which are revolved rapidly for
several hours.
_Incorporation_ or thorough mixing is effected partially by the use of a
rolling barrel, and completed in the _rolling-mill_. This consists of
two cast-iron cylinders rolling round a horizontal axis in a circular
trough with a cast-iron bottom. The cylinders are very heavy, and give a
grinding motion, which is very effective in bringing about a thorough
mixture of the three ingredients. A wooden scraper follows the rollers
and keeps the composition in the middle of the trough. The charge in the
trough is moistened with 2 or 3 per cent. of water before the rollers
are started. A little water is added from time to time as required. This
is the most important operation in the manufacture of powder. The time
required is about one hour for each 50 pounds of composition. When
finished the composition is called _mill-cake_.
_Compressing._--This is next taken to the press-house, slightly
moistened and arranged between brass plates, and then subjected to
hydraulic pressure of about 70 tons (English tons) per square foot. Each
layer is thus reduced to a hard cake.
_Granulation._--The cake is broken up into grains by means of toothed
rollers revolving in opposite directions, the cake being passed between
them. The different-sized grains are separated by sieves between the
different sets of rollers.
_Glazing_ is effected by moistening the grains and revolving them in a
rolling barrel.
_Drying_ is done on sheets in a room heated to 140°-160°.
_Dusting._--The dust is removed by revolving the powder in rolling
barrels covered with coarse canvas. The dust is caught by an outside
case.
There are five kinds of grain powder used in the U. S. service,
distinguished as _mammoth_, _cannon_, _mortar_, _musket_, and _rifle_
powder, all made in the same manner, of the same proportion of
materials, and differing only in the size of the grain. Mammoth is
employed for the heaviest sea-coast guns; cannon for smaller sea-coast
guns; mortar for mortars and field- and siege-pieces; musket for
rifle-muskets; and rifle for pistols. In addition to the above we have
the following:
_Meal powder_, a fine dust containing the ingredients of ordinary
gunpowder, but in which the relative proportions of these ingredients
vary, according to the rate of burning desired, and the object for which
the powder is to be used. Used principally in pyrotechny, and in mortar
fire to communicate the flame from the charge to the shell. Also
“_German_” or “_American_” “_White Gunpowder_,” more powerful than
ordinary gunpowder, but more expensive; acts upon iron, and is very
little used in gunnery.
_Pebble powder_, an irregular large-grain powder, very similar to
American “Mammoth,” which preceded it, was made in England, 1865, by
breaking ordinary _press-cake_ with copper hammers.
_Fossano powder_, made in Italy, 1871, granulated by hand, is a
slow-burning powder, used in large guns, notably in the 100-ton guns,
one of which was recently burst, 1880, by a charge of 552 pounds of this
powder. Lately the grains of this powder have been given a regular form.
Among _regular grain_ powders made _without molding_ are _cubical_, an
English powder, extensively used in all their large guns, the largest
being 2 inches on the edge. This is made by passing the cake between
fluted rollers, which cut it into strips, and then these strips endways
between a second set of rollers.
_Schaghticoke_, made at Hart’s Falls, N. Y., is a _cubical_ powder made
very much like the English,--the lines of fracture are, however, simply
scratched on the cake (both sides), which is afterwards broken in the
ordinary way.
_Molded Powder._--The ingredients are the same as those of ordinary
gunpowder, but each grain is separately molded.
Gen. Rodman was the first to propose the manufacture of these powders in
his _perforated cake_, 1860; the object being to cause the powder to
burn on an increasing surface, thus lessening the strain on the gun in
the first moments of combustion. His powder after a few experiments was
allowed to fall into disuse in the United States, but the invention was
carried to Europe and developed with a smaller grain into _prismatic
powder_, used in Europe, and especially in Germany and Russia, and
particularly adapted to breech-loading cannon; the grain is a hexagonal
prism in form and contains six cylindrical orifices passing entirely
through it parallel to the axis, and symmetrically arranged with respect
to it. The cartridge is so made that the cylindrical orifices pass
through the entire length.
_Hexagonal Powder._--This is the powder principally used in the United
States; the grains have the shape which would be given by joining the
larger bases of two frustrums of equal six-sided pyramids, and vary in
size according to the piece in which the powder is to be used. This
powder is believed in the United States to give the best results, and
can be adapted to cannon of any caliber.
_History of Gunpowder._--The origin of gunpowder as an explosive, and
its application to the projection of missiles of war, are lost in the
mists of obscurity. Its use in Europe can be traced only to the middle
or early part of the 14th century. It is believed by many that certain
experiments by Schwartz, a German monk, led to its introduction in war,
but the better theory seems to be that the knowledge was obtained from
the Saracens. It is probable that the invention arose in Central Asia in
the regions where saltpetre occurs as an effervescence of the soil. The
Chinese appropriated the discovery at a very early period, and fireworks
were common in that country when Europe was roamed by the primitive
savage. When Ghengis Khan invaded China, B.C. 1219, fire-arms of a
primitive form appear to have been used. Passages in old writers seem
also to show that when Alexander invaded India, 327 B.C., he encountered
tribes that used similar weapons. The people of India doubtless obtained
their knowledge from China. Wars and migrations of tribes gradually
disseminated a knowledge of gunpowder over Asia and Northern Africa. The
use of gunpowder is mentioned in Arabic writings in the 13th century.
The Moors used it in Spain in 1312. In 1331 the king of Granada employed
it in sieges. It is said to have been used by the English in the battles
of Crécy, 1316. The Venetians employed it in 1380 against the Genoese.
From that time to the present fire-arms have gradually supplanted other
weapons.
For a long time after its introduction gunpowder was used in the form of
dust or “meal powder.” Granulation was attempted to get rid of the
difficulties in handling the dust, but the grained form proved too
strong for the arms used, and “meal powder” continued in general use
till improvements in the weapons about the close of the 16th century
admitted of the other form. The granulation was at first very crude.
This was remedied in time by the introduction of machinery or
_corning-mills_ in the manufacture. Though different-sized grains were
at first used in large and small guns the principles involved were not
studied, and afterwards one uniform size--large musket powder--was
employed in all fire-arms. This step backwards may have been caused by
the impurity of the ingredients and bad manufacture, which made the
large grains too weak. In the early part of the present century a
classification of grains was revived under the two general names of
_musket_ and _cannon powder_. The invention of the _mercury densimeter_
rendered practicable an accurate determination of the specific gravity
of powder and its relation to quickness of burning, but the importance
of size and form of grain was first appreciated by Gen. Rodman, who, in
1859, began experiments which led at once to the introduction of
_mammoth powder_ for large guns, and later to the invention of
_perforated cake_. The introduction of the powerful ordnance now
existing in Europe has been rendered possible by improvements in this
direction based upon the principles first formulated by Rodman. The
latest idea on the subject is “compensating powder” (proposed by Lieut.
C. A. L. Totten, of the 4th U. S. Artillery), a spherical grain of
gunpowder inclosing a smaller sphere of gun-cotton. This powder remains
to be made and experimented with, but it opens a field of research which
must lead to valuable results.
=Gunpowder, Absolute Force of.= See ABSOLUTE FORCE OF GUNPOWDER.
=Gunpowder Pile-driver.= A pile-driver operated by the explosive force
of gunpowder. The hammer is arranged as usual to slide in vertical
guides. It has a piston on its lower end, which enters a cylindrical
hole in the pile-cap. In this hole the cartridge is placed, and is
exploded through the compression of the air by the piston of the hammer,
when the latter falls. The explosion drives down the pile and raises the
hammer at the same blow. The powder ordinarily used is a mixture of
chlorate of potash and bituminous coal.
=Gunpowder Plot.= A conspiracy entered into by a few Roman Catholics to
destroy the king, lords, and commons on the meeting of Parliament on
November 5, 1605. On the evening of the 4th, the famous Guy Fawkes, who
was to be the leader and agent of the conspirators, was detected under
the vaults of the House of Lords preparing the train for being fired the
next day; and on the morning of the 5th, a little after midnight, he was
arrested, examined, and tortured. He confessed his own guilt, but would
not discover his associates. However, all of them were either killed on
being captured, or died on the scaffold, except one. The memory of this
plot has survived in England, and the name of Guy Fawkes is detested.
=Gunpowder-mill.= See MILL, GUNPOWDER-.
=Gunreach.= The reach or distance to which a gun will shoot; gunshot.
=Güns.= A town of Hungary, situated on the river of the same name, about
57 miles south-southeast of Vienna. It is famous for its noble defense
of its fortifications for twenty-eight days against the Turks under
Solyman in 1532, thus enabling the emperor Charles V. time to assemble a
force strong enough to oppose them.
=Gunshot.= The distance of the point-blank range of a cannon-shot. The
distance to which shot can be thrown from a gun so as to be effective;
the reach or range of a gun.
=Gunshot.= Made by the shot of a gun; as, a gunshot wound.
=Gun-sling.= See SLING.
=Gunsmith.= A maker of small-arms; one whose occupation is to make or
repair small fire-arms; an armorer.
=Gunsmithery.= The business of a gunsmith; the art of making small
fire-arms.
=Gunster.= A gunner. This term is now rare.
=Gunstick.= A stick to ram down the charge of a musket, etc.; a rammer
or ramrod. This term is now rare.
=Gunstock.= The stock or wood in which the barrel of a gun is fixed.
=Gunstone.= A stone used for the shot of cannon. Before the invention of
iron balls, stones were used for shot, but are now altogether
superseded.
=Gunter’s Chain= (from Edmund Gunter, the inventor). The chain commonly
used by military engineers for measuring land. It is 4 rods, or 66 feet
long, and is divided into 100 links.
=Gunter’s Line.= A logarithmic line on Gunter’s scale, used for
performing the multiplication and division of numbers mechanically by
the dividers;--called also line of lines, and line of numbers; also a
sliding scale corresponding to logarithms, for performing these
operations by inspection, without dividers;--called also Gunter’s
sliding rule. This is used by military engineers.
=Gunter’s Scales.= A wooden rule 2 feet long, on one side of which are
marked scales of equal parts, of chords, sines, tangents, rhombs, etc.,
and on the other side, of logarithms of these various parts, by means of
which many problems in surveying and navigation may be solved
mechanically, by the aid of the dividers alone. This instrument is used
by military engineers.
=Gurges=, or =Gorges=. A charge in heraldry meant to represent a
whirlpool. It takes up the whole field, and when borne proper is azure
and argent.
=Gurries.= Mud forts made in India are so called. These forts are
sometimes surrounded with ditches.
=Gurwal.= A state of Northern Hindostan, under the protection of the
British government, at the foot of the Himalaya Mountains. Gurwal was
subdued by the Nepaulese about the year 1803, when Purdumin Shah, the
rajah, at the head of 12,000 men, was defeated and slain at Gurudwara.
The country was conquered by the British in 1814, and partly restored to
the rajah’s son.
=Gusset.= Was at first a piece of chain, and afterwards of plate-armor,
intended as a protection to the vulnerable point where the defenses of
the arm and breast left a gap. In heraldry it is one of the abatements,
or marks of disgrace for unknightly conduct. It is represented by a
straight line extending diagonally from the dexter or sinister chief
point one-third across the shield, and then descending perpendicularly
to the base.
=Guy.= A rope used to swing any weight, or to keep steady any heavy
body, and prevent it from swinging, while being hoisted or lowered.
=Guzerat.= A state in India, founded by Mahmoud the Gaznevide, about
1020; was conquered by Akbar in 1572; and became subject to the
Mahrattas, 1732 or 1752. At the battle of Guzerat, February 21, 1849,
Lord Gough totally defeated the Sikhs, and captured the city of Guzerat.
=Gwalior.= Capital of the state of the same name, in Central India. Its
nucleus is a completely isolated rock of about 300 feet in height,
perpendicular, either naturally or artificially, on all sides; and as it
measures 1¹⁄₂ miles by 800 yards, it can accommodate a garrison of
15,000 men. It is thus virtually impregnable against any native force.
The spot is understood to have been occupied as a stronghold for more
than a thousand years.
=Gyongyos.= A town of Hungary, 43 miles northeast from Pesth. The
Austrians were defeated here by the Hungarians in 1849.
=Gytheum=, or =Gythium= (now _Palæopolis_, near _Marathonisi_). An
ancient town on the east coast of Laconia, founded by the Achæans, near
the head of the Laconian Bay, southwest of the mouth of the river
Eurotas. It served as the harbor of Sparta, and was important in a
military point of view. In the Persian war, the Lacedæmonian fleet was
stationed at Gytheum, and here the Athenians under Tolmides burned the
Lacedæmonian arsenal, 455 B.C. After the battle of Leuctra (370) it was
taken by Epaminondas. In 195 it was taken by Flamininus, and made
independent of Nabis, tyrant of Sparta, whereupon it joined the Achæan
league.
=Gyves.= Fetters; old word for handcuffs.
H.
=Haarlem=, or =Haerlem=. A city of the Netherlands, in the province of
Northern Holland, on the Spaarne. It is an ancient town, and was once
the residence of the counts of Holland; was taken by the Duke of Alva in
July, 1573, after a siege of seven months. He violated the capitulation
by butchering half the inhabitants.
=Habeas Corpus.= A writ of habeas corpus is an order in writing, signed
by the judge who grants the same, sealed with the seal of the court of
which he is a judge, and issued in the name of a sovereign power where
it is granted, by such a court or a judge thereof having lawful
authority to issue the same, directed to any one having a person in his
custody or under his restraint, commanding him to produce such person at
a certain time and place, and to state the reason why he is held in
custody or under restraint.
=Habergeon.= A short coat of mail, consisting of a jacket without
sleeves. In early times the habergeon was composed of chain-mail; but in
the 14th century a habergeon of plate-armor was worn over the hauberk.
=Habiliments of War.= In ancient statutes signify armor, harness,
utensils, etc., without which it is supposed there can be no ability to
maintain a war.
=Habsburg=, or =Hapsburg, House of=. An ancient sovereign family of
Austria, which derives its name from the castle of Habsburg, in
Switzerland. The first member of the family who acquired great celebrity
was Rudolph of Habsburg, born in 1218, and elected emperor in 1273. He
obtained Austria and other provinces by conquest, and founded the
dynasty which now reigns over the Austrian empire, and which, since
1736, has been styled the house of Habsburg-Lorraine.
=Hachée= (_Fr._). Ignominious punishment of carrying a saddle or dog, to
which soldiers were formerly subject in France.
=Haches d’Armes= (_Fr._). Pole- or battle-axes. A _hache d’arme_ is an
axe with a narrow handle armed with a sharp blade in the form of a
crescent very much curved, terminating in two points approaching the
handle on one side; the other side terminating in a point or hammer;
when both sides were armed with a blade it was called _besague_.
=Hack.= To cut irregularly, without skill or definite purpose; to notch;
to mangle by repeated strokes of a cutting instrument. “My sword hacked
like a handsaw.”
=Hack-bush.= Formerly a heavy hand-gun.
=Hacquet Wagen.= A four-wheeled wagon used in the Prussian service to
carry pontons. The under-frame of this carriage is built like that of a
chariot, by which means it can turn without difficulty.
=Hacqueton.= A stuffed coat or cloak, generally of leather, mounted with
metal, formerly worn in France by certain knights of the king’s guards
called “_Gardes de la Manche_.” It came into use during the reign of
Charles V., and was discarded during the revolution of 1789.