Chalcis, one of the most powerful in Eubœa. After the Peloponnesian war,
the city was governed by tyrants.
=Erfurt.= A town of Prussian Saxony, on the river Gera; it was founded
in 476. Erfurt was ceded to Prussia in 1802. It capitulated to Murat,
when 14,000 troops surrendered, October 16, 1806. In this city Napoleon
and Alexander met, and offered peace to England, September 27, 1808. The
French retreated from Leipsic to Erfurt, October 18, 1813. This place
was restored to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna.
=Ericius.= In Roman antiquity, a military engine, so named from its
resemblance to a hedge-hog. It was a kind of chevaux-de-frise, placed as
a defense at the gate of the camp.
=Erie, Fort.= A strong fortification in Upper Canada, on the northern
shore of Lake Erie. Here the British were defeated by the Americans,
August 15, 1814.
=Erlau.= A fortified town of Hungary, the old castle of which was
frequently besieged during the Turkish wars, both by Moslem and
Christian.
=Eryx.= A city and mountain in the west of Sicily, 6 miles from Drepana,
and a short distance from the sea-shore. The possession of the town of
Eryx was contested by the Syracusans and Carthaginians. A great battle
was fought off the town between the fleets of the two nations, in which
the Syracusans were victorious. The town subsequently changed hands more
than once, but it seems to have owned the Carthaginian supremacy at the
time of the expedition of Pyrrhus, 278 B.C. Though taken by that
monarch, it once more fell into the hands of its original conquerors,
who retained it till the close of the first Punic war.
=Erzroom=, =Erzroum=, or =Erzrum=. A fortified town of Armenia (Asiatic
Turkey), on the river Kara-Soo, a branch of the Euphrates. Its position
renders it an important military post. In 1210 it was taken by the
Seljooks, who are said to have destroyed here 100 churches; taken by the
Ottoman Turks in 1517. It was taken by the Russians in 1829, but was
restored to Turkey in the following year.
=Escadron= (_Fr._). Squadron. Froissart was the first French writer who
made use of the word escadron to signify a troop of horse drawn out in
order of battle. The term escadron is more ancient than the word
battalion.
=Escalade.= From the Latin _scala_, a ladder. In siege operations, a
mode of gaining admission within the enemy’s works. It consists in
advancing over the glacis and the covert way, descending, if necessary,
into the ditch by means of ladders, and ascending to the parapet of the
curtain and bastions, and are either procured on the spot, or are sent
out with the siege army. The leaders constitute a forlorn hope.
=Escale= (_Fr._). A machine used to ply the petard.
=Escape of Gas.= See GAS-CHECK and BREECH MECHANISM.
=Escarp.= In fortification, the surface of the ditch next the rampart,
the surface next the enemy being termed the counterscarp. Called also
scarp.
=Escarp Galleries.= Galleries constructed in the escarp for the purpose
of flanking the ditch caponnière.
=Escarpment.= Ground cut away nearly vertically about a position, in
order to render it inaccessible to the enemy.
=Escort.= A body of troops attending an individual as a guard. The term
is also applied to a guard placed over prisoners on a march, to prevent
their escape, and to the guard of a convoy of stores.
=Escort, Funeral.= See FUNERAL ESCORT.
=Escort of Honor.= A body of troops attending a personage of rank by way
of military compliment.
=Escort of the Color.= The military ceremony of sending for and
receiving the colors of a battalion.
=Escouade= (_Fr._). In the old French service generally meant the third
part of a company of foot or a detachment. Companies were divided in
this manner for the purpose of more conveniently keeping the tour of
duty among the men. We have corrupted the term, and called it squad.
=Escuage.= An ancient feudal tenure by which the tenant was bound to
follow his lord to war or to defend his castle.
=Espadon.= In old military works, a kind of two-handed sword, having two
edges, of a great length and breadth; formerly used by the Spanish.
=Espauliere= (_Fr._). A defense for the shoulder, composed of flexible,
overlapping plates of metal, used in the 15th century; the origin of the
modern _epaulette_.
=Espiere.= A town of Belgium, 8 miles from Courtrai, where the allied
Austrian and English army defeated the French, May 22, 1794.
=Espingard=, or =Epingare= (_Fr._). An ancient name for a small gun
under a 1-pounder. They were used as early as the 14th century.
=Espingole=, or =Spingole= (_Fr._). A blunderbuss; a kind of blunderbuss
which, in early times, was loaded with several balls; the charges were
separated from each other by tampions in which a hole was made, and thus
the balls were fired in succession.
=Espinosa de la Monteros.= A town of Spain, on the Trueba, 50 miles
from Burgos. The French defeated the Spaniards here in 1808.
=Esplanade.= In fortification, is the open space intentionally left
between the houses of a city and the glacis of its citadel, so that the
enemy may not be able to erect breaching batteries under cover of the
houses. In old works on fortification, the term is often applied to the
glacis of the counterscarp, or the slope of the parapet of the covered
way towards the country.
=Espontoon= (_Fr._). A sort of half pike, about 3 feet in length, used
in the 17th century. The colonels of corps as well as the captains of
companies always used them in action. This weapon was also used by
officers in the British army.
=Espringal.= In the ancient art of war, a machine for throwing large
darts, generally called muchettæ.
=Esprit de Corps= (_Fr._). This term is generally used among all
military men in Europe. It may not improperly be defined a laudable
spirit of ambition which produces a peculiar attachment to any
particular corps, company, or service. Officers without descending to
mean and pitiful sensations of selfish envy, under the influence of a
true _esprit de corps_ rise into an emulous thirst after military glory.
The good are excited to peculiar feats of valor by the sentiments it
engenders, and the bad are deterred from ever hazarding a disgraceful
action by a secret consciousness of the duties it prescribes.
=Esquimaux.= The tribes inhabiting Greenland and Arctic America. Those
inhabiting the continent are found in sparse settlements from Behring
Strait to Labrador. They are generally peaceable. Some of these in
Greenland have been civilized by the influence of the Danes.
=Esquire.= In chivalry, was the shield-bearer or armor-bearer to the
knight. He was a candidate for the honor of knighthood, and thus stood
to the knight in the relation of a novice or apprentice. When fully
equipped each knight was attended by two esquires.
=Essedarii.= In Roman antiquity, gladiators who fought in a heavy kind
of chariot called _esseda_ or _essedum_. The _esseda_ (which derived its
name from the Celtic word _ess_, signifying a carriage) was a ponderous
kind of chariot much used in war by the Gauls, the Belgæ, and the
Britons. It differed from the currus in being open before instead of
behind; and in this way the owner was enabled to run along the pole,
from the extremity of which, or even from the top of the yoke, he
discharged his missiles with surprising dexterity.
=Essek=, or =Eszek=. A town and fortress of the Austrian empire, in
Sclavonia, on the Drave. It contains an arsenal, barracks, and other
military buildings. There were several battles fought here between the
Turks and Germans. It was finally taken from the Turks in 1687, since
which time it has continued in the hands of the house of Austria.
=Essling.= A village of Lower Austria, on the left bank of the Danube, 6
miles east of Vienna. Between this village and that of Aspern the French
were repulsed by the Austrians in a severe engagement in 1809. See
ASPERN.
=Establish.= A technical phrase to express the quartering of any
considerable body of troops in a country. Thus it is common to say, the
army took up a position in the neighborhood of ----, and established the
headquarters at ----.
=Establishment.= The quota of officers and men in an army, regiment,
troop, or company.
=Establishment, Peace.= Is the reduced condition of an army suited to a
time of peace.
=Establishment, War.= Is the augmentation of regiments to a certain
number, by which the whole army of a country is considerably increased,
to meet war exigencies.
=Estacade= (_Fr._). A dike constructed of piles in the sea, a river, or
a morass, to check the approach of an enemy.
=Estafette= (_Fr._). A military courier, sent express from one part of
an army to another.
=Esthonia=, or =Revel=. A Russian province, said to have been conquered
by the Teutonic knights in the 12th century; after various changes it
was ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Oliva in 1660, and finally to
Russia by the peace of Nystadt in 1721, having been conquered by Peter
in 1710.
=Estimates.= Army estimates are the computation of expenses to be
incurred in the support of an army for a given time.
=Estimating Distances.= See POINTING.
=Estoc= (_Ital._). A small dagger worn at the girdle, called in
Elizabethan times a _tucke_.
=Estoile.= See ETOILES.
=Estradiots=, or =Stradiots=. Grecian and Albanian horsemen, some of
whom were employed in the Italian wars by Charles VIII.; their favorite
weapon was the zagaye; besides this they had a broadsword, and club
slung on the bow of the saddle, with sleeves and gauntlets of mail.
=Estramacon= (_Fr._). A sort of two-edged sword formerly used. A blow
with the edge of a sword.
=Etat Major= (_Fr._). The staff of an army, including all officers above
the rank of colonel; also, all adjutants, inspectors, quartermasters,
commissaries, engineers, ordnance officers, paymasters, physicians,
signal-officers, judge-advocates; also, the non-commissioned assistants
of the above officers.
=Etoiles= (_Fr._). Small redoubts which are constructed by means of
angles rentrant and angles sortant, and have from 5 to 8 salient points.
This species of fortification has fallen into disuse, and are superseded
by square redoubts, which are sooner built and are applicable to the
same purpose of defense.
=Etoupille= (_Fr._). An inflammable match, composed of three threads of
very fine cotton, which is well steeped in brandy mixed with the best
priming gunpowder.
=Etruria=, or =Tuscia= (hence the modern name _Tuscany_). A province of
Italy, whence the Romans, in a great measure, derived their laws,
customs, and superstitions. The subjugation of this country forms an
important part of early Roman history. A truce between the Romans and
Etrurians for forty years was concluded in 351 B.C. The latter and their
allies were defeated at the Vadimonian Lake, 310 B.C.; with the Boii
their allies, 823 B.C., and totally lost their independence about 265
B.C.
=Eubœa.= The largest island in the Ægean Sea. Two of its cities, Chalcis
and Eretria, were very important, till the former was subdued by Athens,
506 B.C., and the latter by the Persians, 490. After the Persian war
Eubœa became wholly subject to Athens. It revolted in 445, but was soon
subdued by Pericles. After the battle of Chæronea, 338, it became
subject to Macedon. It was made independent by the Romans in 194, but
was afterwards incorporated in the province of Achaia. It now forms part
of the kingdom of Greece.
=Eupatoria=, or =Koslov=. A town of Russia, on the west coast of the
Crimea. In September, 1854, the allied English and French armies landed
near here, and the town soon after was occupied by a small detachment.
The Turks subsequently occupied it, and in 1855 it was attacked by the
Russians, who, however, were repulsed by the Turks, and the Anglo-French
ships of war, lying in the neighboring roadstead.
=Eureka Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.
=Europe.= The least extensive, but most civilized of the five great
divisions of the globe. It is bounded by the sea in all directions,
except the east, where it is separated from Asia by a boundary-line,
formed by the river Kara, the Ural Mountains and River, and the Caspian
Sea. For military and naval events which occurred in Europe, see
separate articles.
=Eurymedon= (now _Kapri-Su_). A small river in Pamphylia, celebrated for
the victory which Cimon gained over the Persians on its banks, 469 B.C.
=Eustace, St.= In Lower Canada; the rebels were defeated here, December
14, 1837, and compelled to surrender their arms. Their chiefs fled.
=Eustatius, St.= A West India island, which was settled by the Dutch in
1632; taken by the French in 1689; by the English in 1690; again by the
British forces under Rodney and Vaughan, February 3, 1781. It was
recovered by the French, November 26, same year. It was again captured
by the British in 1801 and 1810, and restored to the Dutch in 1814.
=Eutaw Springs.= A small affluent of the Santee River, in South
Carolina. On its banks was fought, September 8, 1781, the battle of
this name. Gen. Greene, determining to dispossess the British of their
remaining posts, with about 2000 men attacked their forces under Col.
Stuart. The British were routed and fled; but finding in their flight
some objects affording shelter, rallied and repulsed their assailants,
and Gen. Greene finding it impossible to dislodge them, retreated to his
camp with 500 prisoners. The British loss was about 1000; the American
about 600.
=Euxine Sea.= See BLACK SEA.
=Evacuate.= To withdraw from a town or fortress, in consequence either
of a treaty or a capitulation, or of superior orders.
=Evagination.= An unsheathing or drawing out of a sheath or scabbard.
=Evesham.= A borough and market town of England, in Worcestershire, on
the Avon. Near this place a battle was fought between Prince Edward, son
of Henry III., and Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, August 4, 1265.
=Evidence.= Is that which makes clear, demonstrates, or ascertains the
truth of the very fact or point in issue. Hearsay evidence, the
declaration of what one has heard from others. This species of evidence
is not admissible in courts-martial.
=Evocati.= Were a class of soldiers among the Romans, who, after having
served their full time in the army, entered as volunteers to accompany
some favorite general. Hence they were likewise called _emereti_ and
_beneficiarii_.
=Evocation.= A religious ceremony which was observed among the Romans at
the commencement of a siege, wherein they solemnly called upon the gods
and goddesses of the place to forsake it and come over to them. When any
place surrendered they always took it for granted that their prayer had
been heard.
=Evolutions.= Are the movements of troops in order to change position.
The object may be to maintain or sustain a post, to occupy a new post,
to improve an attack, or to improve a defense. All such movements as
marching, countermarching, changing front, forming line, facing,
wheeling, making column or line, defiling, deploying, etc., come under
the general heading of evolutions.
=Evreux= (anc. _Mediolanum_). A city of France, capital of the
department of Eure. It has sustained several sieges, and was burned by
Henry I. of England in 1119.
=Examination, Boards of.= See BOARDS OF EXAMINATION.
=Exarchs.= Were appointed by the Byzantine emperors of the East, to
govern Central Italy after its conquest by Belisarius and Narses, 548.
They ruled from 568 to 752, when Eutychus, the last, was overcome by
Astolphus the Lombard.
=Exauctoratio.= In the Roman military discipline, differed from the
_missio_, which was a full discharge, and took place after soldiers had
served in the army twenty years; whereas the exauctoratio was only a
partial discharge; they lost their pay, indeed, but still kept under
their colors or vexilla, though not under the aquila or eagle, which was
the standard of the legion; whence instead of _legionarii_, they were
called _subsignani_, and were retained till they had either served their
full time, or had lands assigned them. The exauctoratio took place after
they had served seventeen years.
=Excavation.= The art of cutting or otherwise making hollows in the
earth; also the cavity formed.
=Exchange.= The act of two officers changing regiments, battalions, or
batteries. The mutual giving up of an equal number of prisoners by
hostile states or armies. In this sort of exchange an officer, according
to his rank, is reckoned as equal to a certain number of men or of
officers of a lower grade than his own.
=Excubiæ.= In ancient warfare, the watches and guards kept in the day by
the Roman soldiers. They differed from the _vigiliæ_, which were kept in
the night.
=Execution, Military.= Is the pillaging or plundering of a country by
the enemy’s army. Military execution also means every kind of punishment
inflicted in the army by the sentence of a court-martial; which is of
various kinds, including putting a soldier to death by shooting him,
which is the ordinary punishment of deserters to the enemy, mutineers,
etc. This form of death is considered less disgraceful than hanging by
the neck.
=Exempt.= Not subject, not liable to. Men of certain age are exempt from
serving in the militia. An aide-de-camp and brigade-major are exempt
from all regimental duties while serving in those capacities. Officers
on courts-martial are sometimes exempt from all other duties until the
court is dissolved.
=Exercise.= The practice of all those motions and actions, together with
the whole management of arms, which are essential to the perfection of a
soldier, and the rendering him fit for service.
=Exercise, Artillery.= Is the method of teaching the regiments of
artillery the use and practice of all the various machines of war
belonging to that particular arm of the service.
=Exon.= In England, an officer of the Yeomen of the Royal Guard; an
exempt.
=Exostre= (_Fr._). Bridge of the _Helepole_ or movable tower of the
ancients, by which they passed upon a wall during a siege.
=Expanding System of Projectiles.= See PROJECTILES, RIFLE.
=Expedient.= A stratagem in warfare.
=Expedition.= Is an enterprise taken by sea or by land against an enemy,
the fortunate termination of which depends on the rapidity and
unexpected nature of its movements. It is usually intrusted to a
commander of acknowledged talents and experience.
=Expense Magazines.= Are small powder-magazines containing ammunition,
etc., made up for present use. There is usually one in each bastion.
=Experiments.= The trials or applications of any kind of military
machines in order to ascertain their practical qualities and uses.
=Expiration of Service.= The termination of a soldier’s contract of
enlistment.
=Explode.= To burst with a loud report; to detonate, as gunpowder, or a
shell filled with powder or the like material.
=Explosion.= The sudden enlargement of the volume of a body by its
conversion into gas or vapor. (See EXPLOSIVES.) The explosion of powder
may be divided into three distinct parts, viz.: ignition, inflammation,
and combustion, all of which see under their proper headings.
=Explosives.= Substances the elements of which under certain conditions
suddenly undergo a chemical rearrangement into gases, giving rise to
great pressures on surrounding bodies. Modern writers recognize two
different kinds of explosions,--_explosions of the 1st order_, or
_detonations_, and _explosions of the 2d order_, or _rapid combustions_.
Detonating explosions are practically instantaneous. The explosion is
supposed to be propagated by a vibration throughout the mass. Ordinary
explosions are propagated by inflammation. _Gunpowder_, which may be
taken as a type of explosives of the 2d order, burns at a certain rate,
depending upon the density. When a charge is fired the inflammation
spreads from the point of ignition to all parts of the charge,--each
grain is successively enveloped and burned from surface to centre. The
_velocity of inflammation_ is the greater in proportion to the degree of
confinement from the increased tension of the gases. The _velocity of
combustion_ is the rate at which the solid grains are burned. It is
measured by the distance passed over by the burning surface (the line
being taken perpendicular to the surface) in the unit of time. Time thus
enters into the explosion of gunpowder and gives it its peculiar value
as a ballistic agent.
In the _detonating explosives_, the case is very different. These bodies
may be supposed to be made up of molecules containing so many atoms of
carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, etc., so placed as to be held in a state of
equilibrium by their mutual attractions and repulsions, but this
equilibrium is unstable; that is to say, each atom has only a very small
arc of vibration in which the molecule is stable. If by any cause an
atom is forced beyond this limit the equilibrium of the whole mass is
destroyed, and the elements instantly rearrange themselves under the
influence of the chemical affinities which obtain under the particular
conditions of the explosion. This kind of explosion is brought about in
various ways,--by percussion, concussion, heat, etc.,--some bodies being
susceptible to one mode of firing more than another. The theory which
offers the best explanation of the various phenomena is that the
molecular balance is peculiarly susceptible to overturn by certain
vibrations. The vibrations given out by the explosion of the fulminates
seem to have the widest range in bringing about the detonation of
different substances. For this reason the fulminate of mercury is the
universal _detonating agent_. Its own susceptibility to explosion by
heat, percussion, and the electric spark especially fits it for this
work. Wet gun-cotton requires in addition to the fulminate a “primer” of
dry gun-cotton.
=Explosives, Composition of.= _Ordinary explosives_ of which gunpowder
is the type are _mechanical mixtures_ of two essential ingredients,--one
a combustible, the other an oxidizing agent. The combustible is usually
carbon,--sometimes associated with hydrogen. It may be sulphur or any
substance having a great affinity for oxygen. Organic substances
containing carbon and hydrogen are frequently used. In the chemical
reaction the carbon is oxidized to carbonic acid and the hydrogen to
water with the evolution of great heat.
The oxidizing substances ordinarily used are the nitrates and chlorates.
Mixtures containing nitrates are the most stable, since the nitrate is
comparatively slow to give up its oxygen. The chlorate mixtures are
sensitive to friction and percussion, and explode with great quickness.
Many of them are unsafe to handle. A new mode of preparing chlorate
mixtures has been suggested which avoids this danger. A _combustible
liquid_ is used, being absorbed in cakes or lumps of potassium or other
chlorate.
_Detonating explosives_ are _chemical compounds_. Among them are
_chloride_ and _iodide of nitrogen_. Both are dangerous, violent
explosives of which no practical use has been made.
The _fulminates_ are salts of fulminic acid. The _fulminate of mercury_
is the one in common use. See FULMINATES.
The _nitro-substitution_ compounds form a large class, comprising the
most important of the higher explosives. They are all formed by the
action of nitric acid on organic substances containing oxygen, carbon,
and hydrogen. This action is to replace hydrogen (H) in the organic
substance by hyponitric acid (NO₂) (in the acid), equivalent for
equivalent. Sulphuric acid is generally mixed with the nitric, though it
plays no direct part in the reaction, being used to absorb the water
formed and prevent the dilution of the nitric acid.
_Nitro-glycerine_, the most powerful explosive in common use, is formed
by the action of the acids on glycerine. See NITRO-GLYCERINE.
_Nitro-starch_ and _nitro-mannite_ are analogous substances, formed by
the action of the acids on starch and sugar.
_Gun-cotton_ is produced by the action of the acids on cotton-wool--a
form of cellulose. See GUN-COTTON.