combustion in a second of time, measured in a direction perpendicular to
its surface. It has been determined that the velocity of combustion of
dry French war-powder is 0.48 inch, and of English powder, which
American powder closely resembles, is 0.4 inch.
=Comes.= Was with the Romans an officer with territorial jurisdiction in
the provinces, and especially on the frontiers.
=Comigne= (_Fr._). A shell of extreme magnitude, which takes its name
from the person who originally invented it.
=Comines=, or =Commines=. A town of France, situated on the Lys,
opposite the Belgian town of the same name. Near here Oliver de Clisson
defeated the Flemings in 1382.
=Command.= In fortification, the height of the top of a parapet above
the ground or another work.
=Command.= A body of troops, or any naval or military force or post,
under the command of a particular officer. The word command, when
applied to ground is synonymous with overlook; and any place thus
commanded by heights within range of cannon is difficult to defend, if
the enemy have been able to seize the heights.
=Command.= The 62d Article of War (new, 122) states who shall command
when different corps of the army happen to join or do duty together, but
as the wording of this article has been interpreted differently by
different officers, it is thought best to give a decision rendered by
President Fillmore on October 25, 1851, in General Orders from the War
Department. The 62d Article of War provides that “If upon marches,
guards, or in quarters, different corps of the army shall happen to
join, or to do duty together, the officer highest in rank of the _line_
of the army, marine corps, or militia, by commission there, on duty, or
in quarters, shall command the whole and give orders for what is needful
to the service, unless otherwise specially directed by the President of
the United States, according to the nature of the case.” The
interpretation of this act has long been a subject of controversy. The
difficulty arises from the vague and uncertain meaning of the words
“line of the army,” which neither in the English service nor in our own
have a well-defined and invariable meaning. By some they are understood
to designate the regular army as distinguished from the militia; by
others as meant to discriminate between officers by ordinary commissions
and those by brevet; and finally, by others, to designate an officer not
belonging to the staff.
The President states that “He has maturely considered the question, and
finds himself compelled to differ from some for whose opinions he
entertains a very high respect. His opinion is, that although these
words may sometimes be used in a different sense (to be determined by
the context and subject-matter), in the 62d Article of War they are used
to designate those officers of the army who do not belong to the staff,
in contradistinction to those who do, and that the article intended, in
the case contemplated by it, to confer the command exclusively on the
former.” In the discussion which took place in 1828 relating to ordinary
rank and rank by brevet, the then Secretary of War (Gen. Porter) says,
“Rank in the line of the army or lineal rank, as understood by the
President, is applicable to the existing organization of that portion
only of the army which is intended for field operations or the exertion
of physical force against an enemy. It is commonly used in
contradistinction to the staff,” etc. He then goes on to show that in
the 62d Article it has another meaning,--House Document 58, 20th
Congress, 2d session, page 13. In the same discussion, Mr. Drayton, as
chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs of the House of
Representatives, expresses the same opinion. He says, “Rank in the
_line_ of the army is conceived to be rank in a military body specially
organized for the exertion of physical force, or in other words, for
combating an enemy; and an officer in such a body has a direct and
paramount command over the troops which compose it. The expressions
‘rank in the line of the army,’ ‘rank in the line,’ ‘lineal rank,’ _are
generally used in contradistinction to staff appointments_.” He adds,
“and to rank which confers upon officers only an occasional right to
command, including brevet officers,” etc. Thus we see that these
gentlemen admit that these words, in their proper and usual
signification, are employed to distinguish the combatant from the staff
or non-combatant portions of the army.
If we look at the policy of the law, we can discover no reasons of
expediency which compel us to depart from the plain and ordinary import
of the terms; on the contrary, we may suppose strong reasons why it may
have been deemed proper, in the case referred to by the article, to
exclude officers of the staff from command. In the first place, the
command of troops might frequently interfere with their appropriate
duties, and thereby occasion serious embarrassment to the service. In
the next place, the officers of some of the staff corps are not
qualified by their habits of education for the command of troops, and
although others are so qualified, it arises from the fact that (by laws
passed long subsequently to the article in question) the officers of the
corps to which they belong are required to be appointed from the “line
of the army.” Lastly, officers of the staff corps seldom have troops of
their own corps serving under their command, and if the words “officers
of the line” are understood to apply to them, the effect would often be
to give them command over the officers and men of all the other corps
when not a man of their own was present, an anomaly always to be
avoided, where it is possible to do so. Whatever doubts may be
entertained on this subject in regard to the officers of other staff
corps, none can exist in regard to those of the Medical Department and
the Pay Department. The law of 1847 expressly excludes them from
command. Now the officers of these corps are not a distinct and
independent body, but are a part of the army, and as they cannot
command, it follows that when on duty they must be commanded.
=Commandant.= An officer who has the command of a garrison, fort,
castle, regiment, company, etc.; called also commander.
=Commander-in-Chief.= The title given to the officer who has supreme
command of the land or naval forces of a nation. The President is _ex
officio_ commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States.
=Commands.= In the military service there are two kinds, the
_preparatory command_, such as _forward_, which indicates the movement
that is to be executed, and the _command of execution_, such as MARCH,
or HALT, or in the manual of arms, the part of the command which causes
the execution. The tone of command is animated, distinct, and of a
loudness proportioned to the number of men under instruction.
Each _preparatory command_ is pronounced in an ascending tone of voice,
but always in such a manner that the _command of execution_ may be more
energetic and elevated.
The _command of execution_ is pronounced in a tone firm and brief. The
trumpet ought to be used for giving commands whenever it can be done to
advantage.
=Commilitones.= This word had with the Romans the same significance as
the English words _comrade soldiers_.
=Commissariat.= A name given to the organized system whereby armies are
provided with food and daily necessaries. In the old Roman armies the
duty of supplying troops was performed by the _quæstors_, who filled the
place of the commissary officers of our own times. In the U. S. service
this department is under charge of an officer of the rank of
brigadier-general, called the commissary-general of subsistence.
=Commissary.= In general means any one to whom the power or authority of
another is committed; used in military affairs in relation to officers
who have charge of the subsistence of troops, musters, etc.
=Commissary of Muster.= See MUSTER.
=Commissary Sergeants.= In the U. S. service, are sergeants who are
selected from the line of the army, by the Secretary of War; they must
be steady and reliable men, and their duties are to assist the
commissary officer in receiving, storing, preserving, issuing, selling,
and accounting for the subsistence supplies at their posts, according to
the regulations for the subsistence departments.
=Commission.= A writing, generally in the form of a warrant or
letters-patent, authorizing the performance of duties, or exercise of
powers belonging to another. Instruments bearing this title are issued
by the Executive to officers in the army or navy, who, on confirmation
of their appointment, are known as _commissioned_ officers. The practice
of buying and selling all commissions under the rank of colonel, which
formerly prevailed in the British army, was abolished in 1871.
=Commissioned.= One having a commission; furnished with a commission;
empowered or authorized to act; as, a commissioned officer.
=Common Time.= In marching, the length of the direct step in common time
is 28 inches, and the cadence is at the rate of 90 steps per minute.
=Communication, Line of.= A fantastical name applied by Belidor to mines
with immense charges, which he proposed to use for the destruction of
countermines, and which were used successfully in the attack of
Schweidnitz, under Frederick II.
=Commutation.= Is the conversion of allowances, such as fuel, forage,
and quarters, into their money value.
=Comorn.= A royal free town of Hungary, 48 miles from Buda. Its citadel
is considered one of the strongest in Europe. Its works and
intrenchments extend about 7 miles along the banks of the rivers (Waag
and Danube), and it requires for its defense at least 15,000 men and 400
pieces of artillery. It has the reputation of being impregnable, and
justified it in the Hungarian war, for the Austrians besieged it from
October, 1848, to September, 1849, and only became masters of it at last
in virtue of a capitulation.
=Compagnies de Discipline= (_Fr._). “Companies of discipline.” These
companies were created by Napoleon I. in 1802; the basis of their actual
organization was laid by a royal order, dated April 1, 1818. This order
fixes the number of companies at 10, 6 of fusileers and 4 of pioneers,
the former to be composed of soldiers of the army who were guilty of
indiscipline, and the latter to be formed of men of the former who were
deemed incorrigible. The number of companies is now reduced to 7, who
are stationed in Algeria. There are also 4 companies similarly organized
which are stationed in the French colonies.
=Compagnies d’Ordonnance= (_Fr._). The name of a corps of cavalry, which
was organized in France by Charles VII. in 1439; it numbered 16
companies, and the entire strength was 9600 men. This was the first
regular cavalry organized in France.
=Company= (Fr. _compagnie_). In military organization, is a body of men
commanded by a captain, and forming an aliquot part of a regiment or
battalion. In the British service a full company consists of about 100
men, and a regiment of infantry generally comprises 10 or 12 companies,
or if there is more than 1 battalion, each has this number of companies.
The captain of each company is assisted by 2 subalterns. In the U. S.
army each regiment of infantry is divided into 10 companies, and each
company has a captain and 2 lieutenants. The artillery and cavalry
regiments are divided into 12 companies each, and the former has a
captain and 4 lieutenants to each company. See ORGANIZATION.
=Company Column.= The successive improvements that have been made in
fire-arms during the last hundred years have been followed by a gradual
diminution of the depth of tactical formations, until to-day the “open
order,” or the formation as skirmishers, is the only one adopted under
the fire of the enemy. In the most recent development of the “open
order” the company, composed of 250 men, is recognized as the “fighting
unit,” while the battalion, composed of 4 companies, is regarded as the
“tactical unit,”--that is, the smallest body of men that can be safely
employed independently.
The adoption of breech-loaders has not changed the principles of
strategy and grand tactics, nor has it diminished the number of lines in
which armies are drawn up to give and receive battle. It has simply
demonstrated the impossibility of attacking positions in battalion
columns, and, as a consequence, has necessitated a division of the
troops into smaller fractions, which, under fire, can be moved with the
greatest rapidity and least exposure, thereby insuring the least loss of
life. Hence the formation of troops in “company column” in the German
and other European armies.
In the German army, the company is formed in three ranks; the tallest
men are in the front rank; the most adroit and best shots are selected
for the third rank, because the special duties of this rank require
these qualities; the distance between ranks is 2 feet. The company is
divided into divisions (or platoons). If the divisions consist of 20 or
more files, they are divided into subdivisions (or half platoons); the
subdivisions are again divided into sections of not less than 4, nor
more than 6 files. If the company be of full strength, it will have a
front of 72 files; each division will contain 36 files; each subdivision
18 files; and each section 6 files. The battalion consists of 4
companies.
The “company column” is formed in the following manner: The battalion
being in line, at the command to “form company column,” the third rank
of each even division of the right wing faces about, marches 12 paces to
the rear, halts, and faces to the front; the first and second ranks of
the uneven divisions face to the left, and place themselves 6 paces in
rear of the first and second ranks of the even divisions; the third rank
of the uneven subdivisions faces to the left, and, filing in front of
the third rank of the even division, forms with it a third division in
double rank. The movement is executed in the uncadenced step. The column
when formed consists practically of 3 platoons in double rank. In the
left wing the movement is similarly executed; the even subdivisions
ploying in rear of the uneven subdivisions. The third division of each
column is called the “shooting division.”
In the French army the company is formed in 2 ranks, and is normally
divided into 4 sections, the first two of which constitute the first
platoon, the last two the second platoon. The “company column” is always
formed on the second section from the right, which stands fast; the
distance between sections is 6 paces.
The “company column” in Italy, Austria, and Russia, as in France, varies
very slightly from the German.
With a battalion of 8 or 10 companies, subdivisions may be dispensed
with, and, so long as this organization is retained in England and
America, the “company column” will not therefore become a necessity.
Should the regimental system of 3 battalions, of 4 companies each, be
adopted, all of the advantages claimed for the “company column”
can be secured by adopting the double column of fours for each
company.--_Armies of Asia and Europe_, UPTON.
=Compass, Prismatic.= A pocket instrument for measuring horizontal
angles by means of the magnetic meridian. It is much employed in the
military service for sketching the general features of a country, and in
reconnoissances. It consists of a small glass-covered box containing a
magnetized needle attached to a graduated card. A sight-vane with a fine
wire stretched longitudinally in the slot is hinged to one side of the
box. On the opposite side is a prism. To use it the sight-vane is turned
up to the perpendicular. The eye is applied to the prism, and the wire
directed on the object. The division in the card coinciding with the
reflection of the wire gives the angle with the meridian.
=Compassionate Allowances.= In the British service, are grants of
allowances which are made to the legitimate children of deceased
officers of the land forces in all cases in which the widow of the
officer would be entitled to be placed on the pension-list, provided it
be shown that they are deserving objects of the sovereign’s bounty, and
are in distressed circumstances.
=Compiègne.= A town of France, department of Oise. It was besieged by
the English in 1430, who failed to capture it owing to the brave defense
made by its governor, Flavia. Joan of Arc, who came to the assistance of
this town, was taken prisoner by the English besiegers. The emperor
Napoleon III. and the king of Prussia met here on October 6, 1861.
=Complement of the Curtain.= That part in the interior side of a
fortification which makes the demi-gorge.
=Complement of the Line of Defense.= The remainder of the line of
defense after the angle of the flank is taken away.
=Compliment.= The military mark of respect shown by a body of troops to
official personages, to an officer, or to another body of troops.
=Compositions, Pyrotechnic.= See PYROTECHNY.
=Compound Armor.= See ARMOR PLATES.
=Compression Strain.= See ORDNANCE, STRAINS UPON.
=Compulsion=, or =Inevitable Necessity=. Is a constraint upon the will
whereby an officer is urged to that which his judgment disapproves, and
which, it is to be presumed, his will (if left to itself) would reject.
As punishments are, therefore, only inflicted for the abuse of that free
will which God has given to man, it is highly just and equitable that an
officer should be excused for those acts which are done through
unavoidable force and compulsion.
=Comrade.= A soldier who acts as the friend of another soldier,
rendering him friendly services, etc. Each soldier generally has one
special friend who is recognized as his comrade. The term comrade is
also extended so as to include all the members of a particular corps,
branch of the service, or the army generally.
=Concarneau.= A maritime town of France, department of Finistère; it was
taken by Du Guesclin in 1373, and by the Leaguers in 1576. The town is
defended by a fort and surrounded by ancient walls.
=Concave Order of Battle.= See ORDER OF BATTLE, CONCAVE.
=Concepcion.= A port of Chili, capital of a province of the same name.
In 1554, 1555, and 1603, it was taken and burnt by the Araucanians. A
portion of it was again devastated by the Araucanians in 1823.
=Concord.= A town of Middlesex Co., Mass., 11 miles from Boston. Here,
on April 19, 1775, one of the first conflicts took place between the
Americans and the British troops. A monument is erected at this place to
commemorate the event.
=Concrete.= A coarse building mortar, containing broken stone, gravel,
etc., used much in fortifications.
=Condé.= A town of France, in the department of the North. It is
strongly fortified and has a military arsenal. In 1793 this town was
taken by the Austrians.
=Condemned Property.= In the military service, property must be
condemned by an inspector before it can rightfully be destroyed.
=Condottieri.= A name given in the 14th century to the leaders of
certain bands of military adventurers in Italy, who, for booty, offered
their services to any party in any contest, and often practiced warfare
on their own account purely for the sake of plunder. The _Compagnies
Grandes_ in France at about the same period were somewhat similar to the
condottieri, and were so powerful at one time that in 1361 they routed
the king’s forces at Brignais, and slew Jacques de Bourbon, constable of
France.
=Conduct Unbecoming an Officer and a Gentleman.= See UNGENTLEMANLIKE OR
UNOFFICERLIKE, and APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 60 and 61.
=Confederate Projectiles.= See PROJECTILE.
=Confederate States of America=, or =Southern Confederacy=. The efforts
of the Southern States for the extension of slavery, and the zeal of the
Northern States for its abolition, with the consequent political
dissensions, led to the great secession of 1860-61. On November 4, 1860,
Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate, was elected President of the
United States. Hitherto, a President in the interest of the South had
been elected. On December 20, South Carolina seceded from the Union; and
Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia
(except West Virginia), Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina seceded
early in 1861. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated President of the Southern
Confederacy at Montgomery, Ala., February 18, 1861. For important events
of the civil war which ensued, see the different States of America
throughout this work, and the names of battles, etc., which were fought
during this war. On the 20th day of August, 1866, the President (Andrew
Johnson) proclaimed the insurrection at an end, and that peace, order,
tranquillity, and civil authority existed throughout the whole of the
United States.
=Confederation of the Rhine.= The league of the German states, formed by
Napoleon Bonaparte, July 12, 1806, when he abolished the Holy Roman
Empire, and the emperor of Germany became emperor of Austria. In
December it consisted of France, Bavaria, Würtemberg, Saxony, and
Westphalia; 7 grand duchies, 6 duchies, and 20 principalities. The
princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in case of
war, and established a diet at Frankfort. This league terminated with
the career of Bonaparte in 1814. It was replaced by the _Germanic
Confederation_, and it, in its turn, was replaced by the _North German
Confederation_.
=Confiscation.= The appropriation to the public use of private property.
A right which is conferred under certain circumstances by the laws of
war. See CONTRABAND OF WAR.
=Conflans= (near Paris), =Treaty of=. Between Louis XI. of France and
the Dukes of Bourbon, Brittany, and Burgundy, October 5, 1465. By its
provisions Normandy was ceded to the Duke of Berry, and an end was put
to the “War of the Public Good.” It was confirmed by the treaty of
Peronne, 1468.
=Congreve Rocket.= See ROCKET.
=Coni=, or =Cuneo=. The capital of a province of the same name in
Piedmont. It was once a fortified place, and had to undergo several
sieges. After being taken and retaken, the victory of Marengo gave it
into the hands of the French, who demolished the fortifications and
turned them into promenades.
=Connecticut.= One of the original States of the American Confederation,
and the most southwestern of the New England States. The country was
early explored by the Dutch, but the first permanent settlements were
made by English emigrants in 1634. In 1637 the settlers were much
annoyed by Indians, who were shortly afterwards subdued, however, in
engagements at Mystic and Fairfield, and never after gave any serious
trouble. The State took an active part in the cause of American
independence, and also in the late war for the Union, and throughout
both these eventful contests she sustained eminent distinction as well
for the wisdom of her statesmen as for the bravery and patriotism of her
soldiers.
=Conquer.= To gain or acquire by force; to take possession of by violent
means; to gain dominion over; to subdue; to reduce, etc. To gain the
victory; to overcome.
=Conqueror.= One who conquers; one who subdues and brings into
subjection or possession by force or by influence.
=Conquest.= The act of conquering or acquiring by force; the act of
overcoming or subduing opposition by force; subjugation; victory.
=Conquisitores.= So were called the recruiting officers of the Romans.
=Consarbruck.= A village of Rhenish Prussia where the French were
defeated by the Duc de Lorraine, August 11, 1675.
=Conscription.= A system of enrolling men for military service, which is
in vogue in France and some other foreign countries. Voluntary
enlistments being so very few, the compulsory system of keeping up the
armies is deemed indispensable. An account is kept of all the youths who
reach the age of 20 in one year, and out of these the number required
for the army is drawn by lot.
=Consigne= (_Fr._). Parole or countersign.
=Constable.= The title in the Middle Ages of the highest military
officer in France under the king. The term comes from the low Latin
phrase _comes stabuli_, count of the stables.