who are renowned in history for their long and obstinate resistance to
the Romans. In the second Punic war, after giving important aid to the
Carthaginians, they were induced by the generosity of Scipio to accept
the alliance of Rome. They revolted against Rome in 181 B.C., but were
appeased by Gracchus in 179. War was renewed in 153, and continued with
varying success until after the capture of Numantia, 134 B.C. In spite
of this great blow the Celtiberi again renewed the war under Sertorius,
and it was only after his fall that they began to adopt the Roman
language, dress, and manners.
=Cement.= Hydraulic cements are much used in building permanent
fortifications. The cement used by the Romans in their great sea-walls,
aqueducts, etc., which are still standing as monuments of their civil
engineering, was _pozzuolana_, a volcanic earth from near _Baiæ_, Italy.
It is still an article of export from Italy. The most noted modern
cement is Portland, made artificially in England by burning a mixture of
the chalk and clay from the valley of the Medway.
=Cementation.= In metallurgy, is the process of converting metals by
absorption under great heat. Specially applied to the conversion of iron
into steel by causing it to absorb carbon. The iron bars are imbedded in
charcoal and exposed to prolonged heat in a closed furnace. The
qualities of the resulting steel vary with the degree and duration of
the heating. The bars, when removed, are called _blistered steel_ from
their appearance. See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR, BLISTERED STEEL.
=Cenotaph.= The empty tomb of a hero, or monument erected in honor of a
person, without the body of the deceased being interred in or near it.
=Centesimation.= In ancient military history, a mild kind of military
punishment, in cases of desertion, mutiny, and the like, when only every
one hundredth man was executed.
=Central America.= Includes the republics of Guatemala, San Salvador,
Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica (which see). They declared their
independence September 21, 1821, and separated from the Mexican
Confederation July 21, 1823. The states made a treaty of union between
themselves March 21, 1847. There has been among them since much anarchy
and bloodshed.
=Centre.= A point equally distant from the extremities of a line,
figure, or body; the middle point or place of anything.
=Centre of an Army.= The body of troops occupying the place in the line
between the wings. See TARGET.
=Centre of Gravity.= The point of a body about which all its parts are
balanced. This is a matter of great importance in cannon, both for
mechanical manœuvres and for ordinary handling. In all large guns in the
United States, and in many in Europe, the axis of the trunnions passes
through the centre of gravity of the gun. Such guns have no
preponderance, and need no support in firing except the trunnions. This
innovation was introduced by the genius of Rodman, and brought many
advantages in the handling of heavy guns. In projectiles, the _centre of
gravity_, or _inertia_, is also a thing of moment. Spherical projectiles
in which this point does not coincide with the _centre of figure_ are
said to be eccentric, and are subject to certain deviations (see
PROJECTILES); _deviation_ of the relative position of these points
influences the flight also of rifle projectiles.
=Centre of the Bastion.= In fortification, is the intersection made by
the two demi-gorges.
=Centrifugal Gun.= A form of machine gun in which balls are thrown from
a chambered disk rotating with great speed.
=Centrobaric Method.= The method ordinarily used to determine by
calculation the centre of gravity of a projected gun. The principle used
is that the volume generated by any surface in revolving about a fixed
axis is measured by the product of the surface into the path described
by its centre of gravity. The moments of the weights of the several
parts are referred to an axis usually taken tangent to the knob of the
cascabel. The sum of these moments, divided by the weight of the piece,
gives the distance of the centre of gravity from the assumed axis. In
homogeneous guns, the volumes of the several parts can be used instead
of the weights.
=Centurion.= A military officer among the ancient Romans, who commanded
a (_centum_) hundred men.
=Century.= In an ancient military sense, meant a hundred soldiers, who
were employed in working the battering-ram.
=Cephalonia.= One of the Ionian Islands; was taken from the Ætolians by
the Romans 189 B.C., and given to the Athenians by Hadrian in 135. It
was conquered by the Normans in 1146, afterwards passed into the
possession of the Venetians, and was taken by the English in 1819.
=Cephisus.= A river in Attica, near which Walter de Brienne, duke of
Athens, was defeated and slain by the Catalans in 1311.
=Cercelée=, or =Recercelée=. In heraldry, is a cross circling or curling
at the ends, like a ram’s horn.
=Cercle= (_Grand-cercle_), Fr. A form observed under the old government
of France, by which it was directed that every evening at a specific
hour the sergeants and corporals of brigade should assemble to receive
orders, the former standing in front of the latter. Subsequent to the
grand cercle, a smaller one was made in each regiment, when general or
regimental orders were again repeated to the sergeants of each regiment,
and from them communicated to the officers of the several companies.
=Ceremonies, Stated Military.= Exercises, such as parades, reviews,
inspections, escorts of the color, escorts of honor, funeral honors,
guard-mounting, etc.
=Cerignola.= A town of South Italy, in the province of Capitanata. Here,
in 1503, the French were defeated by the Spaniards, and the Duke of
Nemours, who commanded the former, was slain.
=Cerro Gordo.= A celebrated mountain-pass in Mexico, about 60 miles
northwest of Vera Cruz. Here an army of about 12,000 Mexicans under
Santa Anna was totally defeated by about 8000 U. S. troops under Gen.
Scott, April 18, 1847. The Mexicans lost about 1000 killed and wounded,
besides 3000 prisoners; the American loss was 431 killed and wounded.
=Certificate of Disability.= See DISABILITY.
=Certificate of Merit.= See MERIT, CERTIFICATE OF.
=Cessation of Arms.= An armistice or truce, agreed to by the commanders
of armies, to give them time for a capitulation, or for other purposes.
=Ceuta.= A fortified seaport of Morocco, opposite Gibraltar. The castle
stands on the highest point of the ancient _Abyla_, one of the pillars
of Hercules, terminating a peninsula. This was a Mauritanian town under
the Romans, and in 1415 was taken from the Moors by the Portuguese. In
1580 it passed into the possession of the Spanish, in whose hands it
afterwards remained.
=Ceylon= (anc. _Taprobane_). An island in the Indian Ocean. It was
invaded by the Portuguese Almeyda, 1505, but it was known to the Romans
in the time of Claudius, 41. The Dutch landed in Ceylon in 1602; they
captured the capital, Colombo, in 1503. Intercourse with the British
began in 1713. A large portion of the country was taken by them in 1782,
but was restored in 1783. The Dutch settlements were seized by the
British, 1795. Ceylon was ceded to the British by the peace of Amiens in
1802. The British troops were treacherously massacred or imprisoned by
the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The complete sovereignty
of the island was assumed by England in 1815.
=Chæronea= (_Bœotia_). Here Greece was ruined by Philip, 32,000
Macedonians defeating 30,000 Thebans, Athenians, etc., August 6 or 7,
338 B.C. Here Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, was defeated by
Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians were slain, 86 B.C.
=Chain.= A chain made of a kind of wire, divided into links of an equal
length, is made use of by military engineers for setting out works on
the ground, because cord lines are apt to shrink and give way.
=Chain-ball.= See PROJECTILE.
=Chain-mail.= A kind of armor made of interlaced rings, both flexible
and strong; much used in the 12th and 13th centuries.
=Chain-shot.= See PROJECTILE.
=Chair.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF ARTILLERY
CARRIAGE.
=Chalcedon.= In Asia Minor, opposite Byzantium, colonized by Magarians
about 684 B.C. It was taken by Darius, 505 B.C.; by the Romans, 74;
plundered by the Goths, 259 A.D.; taken by Chosroes the Persian, 609; by
Orchan the Turk in 1338.
=Chalcis.= An ancient Greek city, of great antiquity, the capital of the
island of Eubœa. It rose to great eminence, but finally became a
tributary of Athens, from whose sway it revolted several times, being as
often, however, subdued, and held until the downfall of the Athenian
empire at the close of the Peloponnesian war. In later times it was
successively occupied by the Macedonians, Antiochus, Mithridates, and
the Romans. It joined the Achæans in the last war against the Romans,
and the town was in consequence destroyed by Mummius. The modern city of
Egripo, or Negropont, built on its site, for a time in possession of the
Venetians, was taken by the Turks in 1470.
=Chalgrove.= In Oxfordshire, England. At a skirmish here with Prince
Rupert, June 18, 1643, John Hampden, of the Parliament party, was
mortally wounded. A column was erected to his memory, June 18, 1843.
=Challenge.= The act of a sentinel in questioning or demanding the
countersign from those who appear at his post.
=Challenge.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 26, 27, and 28.
=Challenge of Members of Courts-martial.= When a member shall be
challenged by a prisoner, he must state his cause of challenge, of which
the court shall, after due deliberation, determine the relevancy or
validity, and decide accordingly; and no challenge to more than one
member at a time shall be received by the court.
=Châlons-sur-Marne.= A town of France, in the department of Marne. Here
the emperor Aurelian defeated Tetricus, the last of the pretenders to
the throne termed the Thirty Tyrants, 274; and here in 451 Aetius
defeated Attila the Hun, compelling him to retire into Pannonia.
=Chamade.= A signal made for parley by beat of drum.
=Chamber.= Of a mine, that place where the powder is deposited.
=Chamber.= In howitzers, and mortars of the old model, was the smallest
part of the bore, and contained the charge of powder. In the howitzers
the chamber was cylindrical, and was united with the large cylinder of
the bore by a conical surface; the angles of intersection of the conical
surface with the cylinders of the bore and chamber were rounded (in
profile) by arcs of circles. In the 8-inch howitzer, the chamber was
united with the cylinder of the bore by spherical surface, in order that
the shell might, when necessary, be inserted without a sabot. The
chamber is omitted in _all_ cannon of the late models, the cylinder of
the bore terminating at the bottom in a semi-ellipsoid. The old chambers
were subcaliber. The first use of a chamber _larger_ than the bore
occurred, it is believed, in a gun invented by an American named Ferris.
The gun had a great range. One of the most important improvements in
recent ordnance consists in the use of this chamber. The English, who
deserve the credit of first appreciating it, now use it in all their
largest guns. See ORDNANCE, HISTORY OF.
=Chambersburg.= The capital of Franklin Co., Pa. This place was the
scene of several exciting incidents during the civil war. It was
occupied by a party of Confederate cavalry under Gen. Stuart in 1862, by
a part of Gen. Ewell’s forces in June, 1863, and next month almost
totally destroyed by fire by a party of Confederate cavalry under Gen.
McCausland.
=Chamfron=, or =Chamfrain=. The frontlet of a barbed or armed horse,
usually having a spike between the eyes.
=Champ de Mars.= An open square in front of the Military School, Paris,
which was used for the great meetings of the French people, reviews,
etc.
=Champigny.= A town of France, department of the Seine, 8 miles
east-southeast of Paris. On November 30, 1870, a force of 120,000 French
under Gens. Trochu and Ducrot, who made a sortie from Paris, were met
near here by the Germans, and some severe fighting ensued, with great
loss on both sides, the French holding the taken possessions until the
contest was renewed, December 2, when the French were compelled to
retreat.
=Champion Hills.= In Hinds Co., Miss., west of Jackson. Here the
Confederate forces under Gen. Pemberton were defeated by the Union
troops under Gen. Grant, May 16, 1863.
=Champlain, Lake.= An extensive body of water forming part of the
boundary between the States of Vermont and New York, and extending
northward a few miles beyond the Canada line. It was the scene of
engagements between the Americans and British during the war of
independence. On its waters also, in 1814, Commodore Macdonough gained a
victory over the British fleet.
=Chancellorsville.= A small village of Spottsylvania Co., Va., near the
Rappahannock River, about 65 miles north by west from Richmond. This
place was the scene of several sanguinary conflicts between the Federal
army of the Potomac under Gen. Hooker and the Confederates under Gen.
Lee. On April 28, 1863, the Federal army crossed the Rappahannock; on
May 2, Gen. “Stonewall” Jackson furiously attacked and routed the right
wing, but was mortally wounded by his own party firing on him by
mistake. Gen. Stuart took his command, and after a severe conflict on
May 3 and 4, with great loss to both parties, the Federals were
compelled to recross the Rappahannock. The struggle was compared to that
at Hougoumont during the battle of Waterloo.
=Chandelier.= In military engineering, a wooden frame, which was filled
with fascines, to form a traverse in sapping.
=Chanderee=, or =Chandhaire=. A town of India in the province of Malwa.
Its fortress, formerly deemed impregnable, consists of a strong rampart
of sandstone flanked by circular towers, and is situated on a high hill.
During the native wars, being a place of importance, it was frequently
besieged.
=Chandernagore.= The principal settlement of the French in Bengal, which
is encompassed by the British district of Hooghly. In 1757 this
settlement was taken by the British, but restored in 1763. In 1793 it
was again taken by the British, but restored to the French a second time
in 1816.
=Chandore.= A fortified town of British India, 130 miles northwest from
Bombay. In 1804 and 1818 this place capitulated to the British.
=Chantier= (_Fr._). A square piece of wood, which is used for the
purpose of raising anything. It serves to place barrels of gunpowder in
a proper manner, and frequently to try pieces of ordnance instead of
frames.
=Chantilly.= A post-village of Fairfax Co., Va. Here, on September 1,
1862, the Confederate troops of Gen. Lee attacked a part of Gen. Pope’s
army, under Gens. Reno, Stevens, and Kearney, and a severe conflict
ensued, lasting into the night, and resulting in the death of Gens.
Stevens and Kearney.
=Chape.= The metallic part put on the end of a scabbard, to prevent the
point of the sword or bayonet from piercing through it.
=Chapeau.= In a military sense, a hat, cap, or other head-covering.
=Chapeau Bras.= A military hat which can be flattened and put under the
arm.
=Chaperon.= A hood or cape worn by Knights of the Garter.
=Chaplain.= A clergyman with a military commission, giving him the
spiritual charge of soldiers. There are 30 post and 4 regimental
chaplains in the U. S. army.
=Chaplain-General.= In the British service, the officer at the head of
the chaplain’s department.
=Chaplet.= In heraldry, is always composed of four roses, the other
parts being leaves.
=Chappe= (_Fr._). A barrel containing another barrel, which holds
gunpowder. It likewise means a composition of earth, horse-dung, and
wad, that covers the mouth of a cannon or mortar.
=Chapultepec.= A strong fortress of Mexico, situated about 2 miles
southwest of the metropolis. It consists of an eminence rising to the
height of about 150 feet, with a strong castle on top. During the
Mexican war it was deemed necessary by Gen. Scott, for strategic
reasons, to capture this last outward defense of the capital prior to
the attack on the city itself. This was gallantly effected on September
13, 1847, and next day the city was entered by the American forces, thus
virtually ending the war. Preparations for the assault were commenced on
the night of September 11, and before the evening of the 12th, owing to
the skillful arrangement of Gen. Scott’s artillery, the exterior
defenses began to give way. Next day was determined on for the attack.
The American forces were so placed that the assault could be made
simultaneously from different sides at a preconcerted signal, which
would be the temporary cessation of the cannonade from their batteries.
It was given, and the attacking forces advanced, Gen. Quitman’s division
from the south, and Gen. Pillow from the wooded slope on the west, Gen.
Smith’s brigade supporting Quitman, Pillow supported by the division of
Gen. Worth, and the batteries throwing shells into the fort over the
heads of their friends. Under a heavy fire of musketry the attacking
forces advance, and step by step they gain every disputed point,
scaling-ladders are brought into requisition, an entrance effected, and
the defeated Mexicans, dislodged and retreating, are pursued to the very
gates of their capital. The American loss during the three days was 833
killed and wounded.
=Charcoal.= One of the ingredients of gunpowder. It is made by
distilling small sticks of wood in closed retorts. Willow, alder,
poplar, and dogwood are some of the woods used. In distilling the heat
should be kept below redness. Charcoal should be light in weight, and
have a velvety fracture. It inflames at about 460° Fahr. Its
composition and properties vary with the nature of the wood and mode of
distillation employed.
Charcoal obtained from light wood is the best for gunpowder, as it is
more combustible and easy to pulverize, and contains less earthy
matters. Willow and poplar are used for this purpose in the United
States and black elder in Europe. The wood must be sound and should not
be more than 3 or 4 years old, and about 1 inch in diameter; branches
larger than this should be split up. It is cut in the spring when the
sap runs freely, and is immediately stripped of its bark. The smaller
branches are used for fine sporting powder.
The operation of charring may be performed in pits, but the method now
almost universally used in making charcoal for gunpowder is that of
_distillation_. For this purpose the wood is placed in an iron vessel,
generally of a cylindrical form, to which a cover is luted; an opening
with a pipe is made to conduct off the gaseous products, and the wood is
thus exposed to the heat of a furnace. The progress of distillation is
judged of by the color of the flame and smoke, and sometimes by
_test-sticks_, which are introduced through tubes prepared for the
purpose.
_Properties._--The charcoal thus obtained should retain a certain degree
of elasticity, and should have a brown color, the wood not being
entirely decomposed. As it readily absorbs one-twentieth of its weight
of moisture, which diminishes its inflammability, it should be made only
in proportion as it is required for use. Wood generally contains 52 per
cent. of carbon, but distillation furnishes not more than 30 to 40 per
cent. of charcoal.
As it is desirable to have charcoal for gunpowder very combustible, it
must be prepared at a low temperature, and must be light.
_Accidents._--When recently prepared charcoal is pulverized and laid in
heaps, it is liable to absorb oxygen with such rapidity as to cause
spontaneous combustion. This has been the cause of serious accidents at
powder-mills, and hence it is important not to pulverize charcoal until
it has been exposed to the air for several days. When charcoal has not
absorbed moisture, and is mixed with oxidizing substances, it may be
inflamed by violent shocks or by friction. This is the principal cause
of the accidents which occur in the preparation of explosive mixtures
which contain charcoal. See GUNPOWDER.
=Chard.= A town of England, in Somersetshire. Here the royalists were
defeated in the civil wars between Charles I. and the Parliament.
=Charenton.= A town of France, in the department of the Seine. It stands
on the Marne, over which there is a bridge, which was frequently the
scene of bloody conflicts between the citizens and the soldiers during
the French revolutions. It now forms a portion of the fortifications of
Paris.
=Charge.= The act of rushing on the enemy with a view to come to close
fighting. It is also sometimes applied to the temporary command of a
detachment, troop, company, or battery. A charge likewise means the
statement of the crime for which an officer or soldier is brought before
a court-martial.
=Charge.= The quantity of powder with which a piece of artillery is
loaded. The charge corresponding to the maximum velocity in the
projectile is called the _maximum charge_. The longer the gun the
greater the maximum charge. In the early days of artillery, when powder
was used in the form of _dust_, a very large charge was necessary. After
the introduction of grained powder it was reduced gradually to about
one-fourth the weight of the shot. At the time of the recent departures
in ordnance, the charge for smooth-bore guns was from one-fifth to
one-eighth the weight of the projectile; for howitzers, from one-eighth
to one-twentieth; for mortars the charge varied with the range, the
largest being about one-ninth. For rifle guns the disproportion was
greater than for smooth-bores, the average being about one-tenth. In
small-arms, the charge for the old smooth-bore musket was about
one-third the weight of the ball. When the rifle was introduced, this
proportion was retained till the oblong bullet began to be used, when
the charge was relatively much diminished, till it fell to about
one-tenth. The tendency lately has been to increase it. In some of the
best-known rifles of the present day the charge is about one-fifth,--a
majority use more than one-sixth. The same tendency is still more
observable in heavy ordnance. The largest _Krupp_, _Woolwich_, and
_Armstrong_ guns use a charge greater than _one-fourth_ the weight of
the projectile.
=Charge.= The position of a weapon fitted for attack; as, to bring a
weapon to the charge.
=Charge.= In heraldry, the figures represented on a shield are called
charges, and a shield with figures upon it is said to be charged. The
charges in a shield ought to be few in number, and strongly marked, both
as regards their character and the mode of their representation. The
family shield belonging to the head of the house almost always is
simpler,--_i.e._, has fewer charges than the shields of collaterals, or
even of junior members.
=Charger= (Fr. _cheval de bataille_). A horse kept by an officer for
military purposes.
=Chariot.= In antiquity, a war car or vehicle.
=Charleroi.= A strongly fortified town of Belgium, in Hainaut. This
place was fortified by Vauban. Several great battles have been fought
near this town, especially in 1690 and 1794. Charleroi was besieged by
the Prince of Orange, 1672 and 1677; but he was soon obliged to retire.
Near here, at Ligny, Napoleon attacked the Prussian line, making it fall
back upon Wavres, June 16, 1815.
=Charleston.= A port of entry and the chief city of South Carolina,
founded in 1672. On Sullivan’s Island, about 7 miles below,
communicating with the harbor, a garrison of about 400 Americans under
Col. Moultrie sustained an assault from 9 British ships of war, and
gallantly repulsed them, on June 28, 1776. The city was afterwards
besieged, and after a gallant resistance of nearly six weeks surrendered
to the British, May 12, 1780, being held by them till 1782. In the civil
war (1861-65) it was here the first gun was fired, which resulted in the
reduction of the famous Fort Sumter. In the latter part of the war it
was bombarded and besieged by the Federal troops. Its evacuation by the
Confederates and its occupation by the Federals followed, February 18,
1865.
=Chase.= In gunnery, is the conical part of the gun in front of the
reinforce.