he is rendered unaccountable to any other for his actions. The power of
the Athenian generals or commanders was usually limited, so that, at
the expiration of their office, they were liable to render an account of
their administration. But, on some extraordinary occasions, they were
exempted from this restraint, and sent with a full and uncontrollable
authority; in which sense they were styled autocrats. Somewhat similar
was the Roman _dictator_. This term is sometimes applied to the czar of
Russia.
=Automatic Fire.= A mixture of combustibles used by the Greeks. It was
exploded by the rays of the sun.
=Autonomy.= The power or right of self-government. This was a privilege
jealously preserved in all the important cities of ancient Greece,
nearly every one of which was an independent state. The right to make
their own laws and elect their own magistrates was also granted by the
Romans to some of their cities, and was regarded as a mark of honor.
=Autun= (anc. _Bibracte, Augustodunum_). A town in France, department of
the Saöne-et-Loire. Here, in the year 21, two Roman legions under Silius
gained a victory over Sacrovir, chief of the Ædui, who had assembled a
considerable force to oppose Silius. The Germans besieged it in 355;
captured by the Burgundians in 414; devastated by the Saracens in 731;
burned by the Normans in 888 and 895. This city was besieged without
success by Marshal d’Aumont in 1591. It was also the scene of hostile
operations between Garibaldi and the Germans in the winter of 1870-71.
=Auxerre.= Chief town of the department of Yonne, France. It is supposed
to be on the site of the ancient _Autissiodorum_, which was a
flourishing town before the Roman invasion of Gaul. It successfully
resisted the Huns under Attila, was taken from the Romans by Clovis, and
after his death became a part of the kingdom of Burgundy. The English
took it in 1359, but it was retaken by Du Guesclin. It was finally
united to the kingdom of France by Louis XI. John, “Sans Peur,” duke of
Burgundy (reigned from 1404-19), caused the assassination of Louis, duke
of Orleans, in 1407, which gave rise to a civil war between the
Burgundians and the dukes of Orleans and their allies, which was ended
by the treaty of Auxerre, August 10, 1412.
=Auxiliary.= Foreign or subsidiary troops which are furnished to a
belligerent power in consequence of a treaty of alliance, or for
pecuniary considerations. Of the latter description may be considered
the Hessians that were employed by Great Britain to enslave America.
=Auxiliary War.= See WAR, AUXILIARY.
=Auximum= (now _Osimo_). A town in Italy, 9 miles from Ancona, which
Belisarius (a great general of the Byzantine empire) captured from the
Goths in 539.
=Avallon= (anc. _Aballo_). A town in the department of Yonne, France,
which sustained a long siege and was dismantled during the reign of King
Robert in the 10th century. It was sacked by the Saracens in 731, and
by the Normans in 843; taken by Charles VII. in 1433, retaken by Philip
the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1455, and pillaged by the troops of the
League in 1593.
=Avant= (_Fr._). Foremost, most advanced towards the enemy; as,
_Avant-chemin couvert_, the advanced covered way which is made at the
foot of the glacis to oppose the approaches of an enemy. _Avant-duc_,
the pile-work which is formed by a number of young trees on the edge or
entrance of a river. They are driven into the ground with battering-rams
or strong pieces of iron, to form a level floor by means of strong
planks being nailed upon it, which serve for the foundation of a bridge.
Boats are placed wherever the _avant-duc_ terminates. The _avant-duc_ is
had recourse to when the river is so broad that there are not boats
sufficient to make a bridge across. _Avant-ducs_ are made on each side
of the river. _Avant-fosse_, the ditch of the counterscarp next to the
country. It is dug at the foot of the glacis. _Avant-garde_,
advance-guard. _Avant-trains_, the limbers of field-pieces on which are
placed boxes containing ammunition enough for immediate service.
=Avars.= Barbarians who ravaged Pannonia and annoyed the Eastern empire
in the 6th and 7th centuries; subdued by Charlemagne about 799, after an
eight years’ war.
=Avein=, or =Avaine=. A village in Luxembourg, where, on May 20, 1635,
the French and Dutch, under Marshals de Chatillon and de Brere, defeated
the Spaniards under Prince Thomas of Savoy. The prince lost 4000 men
killed and wounded, 900 prisoners, and 14 pieces of cannon.
=Aventaile.= The movable part of a helmet.
=Averysborough.= A village of North Carolina, on Cape Fear River, about
40 miles south of Raleigh. During Gen. Sherman’s South Carolina
campaign, in 1865, this place was the scene of an engagement between his
forces and about 20,000 Confederates under Gen. Hardee, who were
intrenched in a swampy neck between Cape Fear and South Rivers in order
to check Sherman’s progress, and gain time for the concentration of Gen.
Johnston’s forces in the rear at Raleigh, Smithfleld, or Goldsboro’. The
position of the Confederates was a strong one to carry by reason of the
nature of the ground, which was very soft; but after four hours’
fighting they were driven back to a second line better and more strongly
held, losing 3 guns and 217 prisoners. Here the fighting was continued
until late in the afternoon, when the entire Federal line advanced and
drove the Confederates within their intrenchments, pressing them so hard
that during the night of March 16, which was stormy, they retreated
towards Smithfield. The Union loss was 12 officers and 65 men killed and
477 wounded.
=Avesnes.= A city in the department of the North, France; ruptured by
Louis XI.; recaptured by the Spaniards in 1559; returned to France in
1659; occupied by the Russians in 1814, and by the Prussians in 1815.
=Avesnes le Sec, Battle of.= The French were defeated by the Austrians
in this battle, September, 1793.
=Avigliana.= A city in Italy where the French defeated the Piedmontese
in 1630.
=Avignon.= A city in Southeastern France; besieged and captured by Louis
VIII. of France in 1226; ceded by Philip III. to the pope in 1273. The
papal seat was removed by Clement V. to Avignon in 1309. In 1348,
Clement VI. purchased the sovereignty from Jane, countess of Provence
and queen of Naples. In 1408 the French, wearied of the schism, expelled
Benedict XIII., and Avignon ceased to be the seat of papacy. Here were
held nine councils (1080-1457). This city was seized and restored
several times by the French kings; the last time in 1773. It was claimed
by the National Assembly, 1791, and was confirmed to France by the
congress of sovereigns in 1815. In October, 1791, horrible massacres
took place here.
=Avis=, or =Aviz=. An order of knighthood in Portugal, instituted by
Sancho, the first king of Portugal, in imitation of the order of
Calatrava, and having, like it, for its object the subjugation of the
Moors. The king of Portugal is grand-master of the order.
=Avranches= (anc. _Abrancæ_). A city in the department of La Manche,
France. It was a place of importance during the Roman period.
Charlemagne fortified it, but it was taken by the Normans in 865. It was
captured by Geoffrey Plantagenet in 1141; by Guy de Thouars in 1203; by
the English in 1418; by the Calvinists in 1562; besieged by the royal
troops in 1591.
=Award.= A judgment, the result of arbitration. In a military sense, the
decision or sentence of a court-martial. To award medals of honor.
=Awkward Squad.= See SQUAD.
=Axel.= A town in the province of Zealand, Holland; captured by escalade
from the Spaniards August 20, 1586, by Prince Maurice of Saxony, who was
then but twenty years of age; captured by assault on May 16, 1747, by
Marshal Maurice de Saxe.
=Axis.= A straight line, real or imaginary, about which a body revolves
is called the axis of rotation. In gunnery, the axis of the piece is the
central line of the bore of the gun.
=Axum=, or =Axoum=. A town in Abyssinia, said to have been the capital
of a kingdom whose people were converted to Christianity by Frumentius,
in the 4th century, and to have been the allies of Justinian, 533;
captured and burned by the Arabs in 1532.
=Aya-Bassi=, or =Bachi=. A non-commissioned grade in the corps of
janissaries, corresponding to that of corporal in modern armies.
=Ayacucho.= A city in Peru; here the Peruvians finally gained their
independence by defeating the Spaniards, December 9, 1824. The Spaniards
lost 6 generals killed, and General Lascerna wounded and taken prisoner;
700 men under Canterac and Valdez, who tried to escape, were forced to
surrender.
=Aylesbury.= A town in Buckinghamshire, England; was reduced by the West
Saxons in 571. St. O’Syth, beheaded by the pagans in Essex, was buried
there, 600. William the Conqueror invested his favorites with some of
its lands, under the tenure of providing straw for his bed-chambers,
three eels for his use in winter, and in summer, straw, rushes, and two
green geese, thrice every year.
=Aylesford.= A town in Kent, England; here, it is said, the Britons were
victorious over the Saxon invaders, 455, and Horsa was killed.
=Azaine= (_Fr._). A name formerly applied to a trumpet in the French
army.
=Azapes.= Auxiliary troops which were levied by the Turks among the
Christians (under their dominion), whom they exposed to the first attack
of the enemy.
=Azay-le-Rideau.= A small town in the department of Indre-et-Loire,
France, formerly fortified; it sustained several sieges during the reign
of Charles VI.
=Azaz.= A fortress which was situated between Aleppo and Antioch;
captured by the Saracens in 688 B.C.
=Azmooz.= A village in Switzerland, where the French under Massena
defeated the Austrians and took 3000 prisoners.
=Azoe=, or =Azov=. A town in Russia in Europe, captured by Tamerlane in
1392, by the Turks in 1471, by the Russians in 1696; returned to the
Turks in 1711; ceded to Russia in 1774. It was bombarded and destroyed
by an allied English and French squadron in 1855.
=Azof, Sea of.= The _Palus Mæotis_ of the ancients, communicates by the
Strait of Yenikale, or Kertch (the Bosphorus Cimmerius), with the Black
Sea, and is entirely surrounded by Russian territory. An expedition
composed of British, French, and Turkish troops, commanded by Sir G.
Brown, arrived at Kertch, May 24, 1855, when the Russians retired, after
blowing up the fortifications. On the 27th the allies marched upon
Yenikale, which also offered no resistance. On the same evening the
allied fleet entered the sea of Azof, and in a few days completed their
occupation of it, after capturing a large number of merchant vessels,
etc. Immense quantities of stores were destroyed by the Russians to
prevent them falling into the hands of the allies.
=Azotus.= See ASHDOD.
=Aztecs.= The ruling tribe in Mexico at the time of the Spanish
invasion, 1519.
=Azure.= A French word used in heraldry to signify blue. In engraving
arms it is always represented by horizontal lines.
B.
=Baalbec.= An ancient city of Syria. From the accounts of Oriental
writers, it was a place of importance down to the time of the Moslem
invasion of Syria. After the capture of Damascus, it was regularly
invested by the Moslems, and after a courageous defense at length
capitulated; sacked and dismantled by the caliph of Damascus, and the
principal inhabitants put to the sword, 748; pillaged by Timour Bey,
1400; afterwards subjected to Turkish supremacy; pillaged August 8,
1860, and the Christian inhabitants massacred by the Mohammedans.
=Bab-el-Thaza.= A place in Algeria where the French fought the Arabs,
April 22, 1842.
=Babylon.= One of the oldest and most celebrated cities in the world,
the ancient capital of the Babylonio-Chaldean empire, was situated in an
extensive plain on the Euphrates, about 60 miles south of Bagdad. The
modern town of Hillah is supposed to occupy a portion of its site. About
588 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, captured Jerusalem, burned
the great temple of Solomon, and carried away the Jews as captives to
Babylon. Cyrus besieged Babylon, took it by stratagem in 538, and put to
death the king Belshazzar, after which the kingdom of Babylon ceased to
exist. The city was occupied by Darius in 518, and taken by Alexander
the Great in 331. Alexander having selected it as the capital of his
empire, died there in 323 B.C.
=Bacchi.= Two ancient warlike machines; the one resembled a
battering-ram, the other cast out fire.
=Bachelier= (_Fr._). A young squire, or knight, who has passed through
his first campaign, and received the belt of the order.
=Bachevaleureux.= A term which, in the old French language, signified
warrior, brave, valiant, etc.
=Backing.= The heavy plating of wood, or of wood and iron, used to
support and strengthen iron plates.
=Back-plate.= A piece of armor for covering the back.
=Back-sight.= See SIGHT, REAR.
=Back-step.= The retrograde movement of a man, or a body of men, without
changing front.
=Backsword.= A sword with one sharp edge. In England, a stick with a
basket handle, used in rustic amusements; the game in which it is used;
called also “single stick.”
=Backwards.= A technical word made use of in the British service to
express the retrograde movement of troops from line into column, and
_vice versa_. Also a word of command in the U. S. service, to cause a
man, or body of men, to march to the rear without changing front.
=Bactria= (now _Bokhara_). A province of the Persian empire; it was
inhabited by a rude and warlike people, who were subdued by Cyrus or his
next successors. It was included in the conquests of Alexander, and
formed a part of the kingdom of the Selucidæ until 255 B.C., when
Theodotus, its governor, revolted from Antiochus II., and founded the
Greek kingdom of Bactria; overthrown by the Parthians 134 or 125 B.C.
=Bacule.= A kind of portcullis or gate, made like a pitfall, with a
counterpoise. See BASCULE BRIDGE.
=Badajos= (Southwest Spain). An important barrier fortress, surrendered
to the French, under Soult, March 11, 1811; was invested by the British,
under Lord Wellington, on March 16, 1812, and stormed and taken on April
6, 1812. The French retreated in haste.
=Badaleers.= Musket-charges of powder in tin or copper tubes, worn
dangling from a shoulder-belt, before the introduction of cartridges.
=Baddesdown Hill=, or =Mount Badon=. Near Bath, England, where Bede says
the Britons defeated the Saxons, 493; others say in 511 or 520.
=Badelaire=, or =Bandelaire= (_Fr._). A short, broad, curved, and
double-edged pointed sword.
=Baden= (Southwest Germany). A grand duchy; broke out in insurrection
and joined by the free city of Rastadt, May, 1849; the Prussians entered
it, and defeated the insurgents commanded by Mierolawski, June 15, 1849.
Noted as the place where the Emperor Napoleon III., the prince regent of
Prussia, and the German kings and princes held an interview, June 16,
1860.
=Badge.= A distinctive mark, token, or sign, worn on the person. _Corps_
badges were worn to distinguish the army corps during the civil war,
1861-65. _Marksmen’s badges_ are given to good shots in most armies.
=Badon, Mount.= The scene of a battle said to have been fought by King
Arthur against the Saxons who invaded his kingdom, and in which the
latter were signally defeated. By some writers Badon has been identified
with Bath, by others in Berkshire.
=Bæcula.= An ancient town in Hispania Tarraconensis, west of Castulo,
where the Romans under Scipio defeated the Carthaginians under
Hasdrubal, 209 B.C.
=Bagaudes.= A name given to the peasants of Gaul, who revolted against
the Romans in 270; they pillaged cities and villages and massacred the
Roman officers; two of the insurgent chiefs, Aliandus and Amandus, were
elected emperors; their reign was of short duration; besieged in their
camp near the confluence of the Seine and Marne, where Saint-Maur is now
situated, they died in arms. This place was named for a long time “Camp
des Bagaudes.”
=Bagdad.= In Asiatic Turkey, built by Al Mansour, and made the seat of
the Saracen empire about 762; taken by the Tartars, and a period put to
the Saracen rule, 1258; often taken by the Persians, and retaken by the
Turks, with great slaughter; the latter took it in 1638, and have held
it since.
=Baggage.= The clothes, tents, utensils of divers sorts, and provisions,
etc., belonging to an army, or part of an army.
=Baggonet.= The old term for bayonet.
=Bagpipe.= The name of a musical warlike instrument, of the wind kind,
used by the Scotch regiments, and sometimes by the Irish. Bagpipes were
used by the Danes, by the Romans, and by the Asiatics. The Greeks also
had an instrument composed of a pipe and blown-up skin. The bagpipe has
been a favorite instrument among the Scots. There are two varieties, the
one with long pipes, sounded with the mouth; the other, with short
pipes, filled with air by a bellows, and played on with the fingers. The
first, the loudest and most ear-piercing of all music, is the genuine
Highland pipe, and was suited to the warlike genius of that people. It
formerly roused their courage to battle, alarmed them when secure, and
collected them when scattered, solaced them in their long and painful
marches, and in time of peace kept up the memory of the gallantry of
their ancestors by the tunes composed after signal victories. The other
is the Irish bagpipe.
=Bags.= Articles used in field fortifications, and in works to cover a
besieging army. _Sand-bags_, which are generally 16 inches in diameter,
and 30 high, are filled with earth or sand, to repair breaches and
embrasures of batteries, when damaged by the enemy’s fire or by the
blast of the guns. They are also placed on parapets, so arranged as to
form a covering for men to fire through. _Earth-bags_ contain about a
cubical foot of earth, and are used to raise a parapet in haste, or to
repair one that is beaten down. They are only employed where the ground
is rocky, or too hard for the pickaxe and spade, and does not afford
ready material for a temporary parapet.
=Bags, Cartridge-.= See CARTRIDGE.
=Bags of Powder.= Are used to blow down gates, stockades, and slight
obstructions. In future wars the higher explosives will probably be used
for such purposes.
=Bahama Isles= (North America). Were the first points of discovery by
Columbus. New Providence was settled by the English in 1629. They were
expelled by the Spaniards in 1641; returned in 1666; again expelled in
1703. These isles were formally ceded to the English in 1783. The
Bahamas profited by blockade-running during the American civil war,
1861-65.
=Bahar.= A province in Northern India; conquered by Baber in 1530.
Bahar, Bengal, and Orissa, a princely dominion, became subject to the
English East India Company in 1765, by the treaty of Allahabad.
=Baiclaklar.= A color-bearer in the Turkish army.
=Baiky.= The ballium, or inclosed plat of ground in an ancient fort.
=Bail.= A stout iron yoke placed over heavy guns and fitting closely
over the ends of the trunnions, to which it is attached by pins in the
axis of the trunnions; used to raise or lower the gun by means of the
gin.
=Baille= (_Fr._). A term formerly used to designate a work or
fortification which served as an outpost or exterior defense.
=Baionnier= (_Fr._). A name formerly given to soldiers who were armed
with a bayonet.
=Baker, Post.= The person who bakes bread for a garrison. In the U. S.
service an enlisted man, who receives additional pay for his labor.
=Bakery=, or =Bakehouse=. See OVENS.
=Balaklava.= A small town in the Crimea, with a fine harbor, about 10
miles from Sebastopol. Near here about 12,000 Russians, commanded by
Gen. Liprandi, were repulsed by a furious charge of heavy English
cavalry, led by Brig.-Gen. Scarlett, under the orders of Lord Lucan,
October 25, 1854. After this, from an unfortunate misconception of Lord
Raglan’s order, Lord Lucan ordered Lord Cardigan, with the light
cavalry, to charge the Russian army, which had reformed on its own
ground, with its artillery in front. This order was most gallantly
obeyed, and great havoc was made on the Russians; but of 670 British
horsemen only 198 returned (termed by Tennyson “The Charge of the Six
Hundred”). On March 22, 1855, a sortie from the garrison of Sebastopol
led to a desperate engagement here, in which the Russians were
vigorously repulsed, with the loss of 2000 men killed and wounded; the
allies lost about 600.
=Balance-step.= An exercise in squad drill, a preliminary to marching.
=Balbec.= See BAALBEC.
=Baldrick=, or =Baudrick=. A girdle, or richly ornamented belt, worn
pendent from one shoulder across the breast, and under the opposite arm.
=Bale=, or =Basel=. One of the largest towns in Switzerland; captured
and burned by the Hungarians in 917. In 1444 there was a bloody battle
fought about a quarter of a mile beyond its gates, called the battle of
St. Jacob, between the Swiss, 1600 strong, and a French army that was
twenty times their number, commanded by the dauphin, afterwards Louis
XII. For ten hours the brave Swiss band kept this large army in check;
but nearly all the Swiss fell, not more than 10, according to some
accounts, escaping alive. This exploit first spread the fame of Swiss
valor, and led to the enrollment of the Swiss body-guard of France. The
treaties of peace between France and Spain, and France and Prussia, were
signed here, July 22, 1795.
=Balearic Islands.= A group of islands in the Mediterranean; conquered
by the Romans 123 B.C.; by the Vandals about 426 B.C., and formed part
of Charlemagne’s empire, 799. They were conquered by the Moors about
1005, and held by them till about 1280, when they were annexed by
Aragon. See MAJORCA and MINORCA.
=Balista.= A machine in ancient warfare used for throwing stones,
burning objects, leaden balls, and even dead and putrefied bodies. The
latter were thrown to cause sickness in besieged cities.
=Balistarium.= A store-room or arsenal in which the Romans stored their
balistas.
=Balister.= A term applied in ancient times to a cross-bow.
=Balistrier.= A name applied to cross-bow men in ancient times.
=Balkan.= The ancient Hæmus, a range of mountains extending from the
Adriatic to the Euxine. Their passage, up to that time deemed
impracticable, was completed by the Russians under Diebitsch during the
Russian and Turkish war, July 26, 1829. An armistice was the
consequence, and a treaty of peace was signed at Adrianople, September
14, following. The Balkan was again crossed by the victorious Russians
in the face of all opposition during the Russian and Turkish war, 1877.
=Balks.= Joist-shaped spars, which rest between the cleats upon the
saddles of two pontons, to support the chess or flooring.
=Ball.= Is a general term applied to every kind of spherical shot fired
from a musket, rifle, or cannon. Leaden balls are chiefly used for the
small-arms and iron for the artillery. See CARTRIDGE, SHOT, SHELLS.
=Ball and Chain.= For serious offenses soldiers are sometimes sentenced
to wear a 6- or 12-pounder ball attached by a chain to the leg.
=Ball-cartridge.= A cartridge containing a ball.
=Ballinamuck.= A town in the county of Longford, Ireland. Here, on
September 8, 1798, the Irish rebels and their French auxiliaries were
defeated and captured.
=Ballistea.= In antiquity, songs accompanied by dancing, used on
occasions of victory.