[1] _Hist. of the Rebellion_, xi. 263.
HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD BARON (1773-1840), was the son
of Stephen Fox, 2nd Baron Holland, his mother, Lady Mary Fitzpatrick,
being the daughter of the earl of Upper Ossory. He was born at
Winterslow House in Wiltshire, on the 21st of November 1773, and his
father died in the following year. He was educated at Eton and at Christ
Church, Oxford, where he became the friend of Canning, of Hookham Frere,
and of other wits of the time. Lord Holland did not take the same
political side as his friends in the conflicts of the revolutionary
epoch. He was from his boyhood deeply attached to his uncle, C. J. Fox,
and remained steadily loyal to the Whig party. In 1791 he visited Paris
and became acquainted with Lafayette and Talleyrand, and in 1793 he
again went abroad to travel in France and Italy. At Florence he met with
Lady Webster, wife of Sir Godfrey Webster, Bart., who left her husband
for him. She was by birth Elizabeth Vassall (1770-1845), daughter of
Richard Vassall, a planter in Jamaica. A son was born of their irregular
union, a Charles Richard Fox (1796-1873), who after some service in the
navy entered the Grenadiers, and was known in later life as a collector
of Greek coins. His collection was bought for the royal museum of Berlin
when he died in 1873. He married Lady Mary Fitzclarence, a daughter of
William IV. by Mrs Jordan. Sir Godfrey Webster having obtained a
divorce, Lord Holland was enabled to marry on the 6th of July 1797. He
had taken his seat in the House of Lords on the 5th of October 1796.
During several years he may be said almost to have constituted the Whig
party in the Upper House. His protests against the measures of the Tory
ministers were collected and published, as the _Opinions of Lord
Holland_ (1841), by Dr Moylan of Lincoln's Inn. In 1800 he was
authorized to take the name of Vassall, and after 1807 he signed himself
Vassall Holland, though the name was no part of his title. In 1800 Lord
and Lady Holland went abroad and remained in France and Spain till 1805,
visiting Paris during the Peace of Amiens, and being well received by
Napoleon. Lady Holland always professed a profound admiration of
Napoleon, of which she made a theatrical display after his fall, and he
left her a gold snuff-box by his will. In public life Lord Holland took
a share proportionate to his birth and opportunities. He was appointed
to negotiate with the American envoys, Monroe and W. Pinkney, was
admitted to the privy council on the 27th of August 1806, and on the
15th of October entered the cabinet "of all the talents" as lord privy
seal, retiring with the rest of his colleagues in March 1807. He led the
opposition to the Regency bill in 1811, and he attacked the "orders in
council" and other strong measures of the government taken to counteract
Napoleon's Berlin decrees. He was in fact in politics a consistent Whig,
and in that character he denounced the treaty of 1813 with Sweden which
bound England to consent to the forcible union of Norway, and he
resisted the bill of 1816 for confining Napoleon in St Helena. His
loyalty as a Whig secured recognition when his party triumphed in the
struggle for parliamentary reform, by his appointment as chancellor of
the duchy of Lancaster in the cabinet of Lord Grey and Lord Melbourne,
and he was still in office when he died on the 22nd of October 1840.
Lord Holland is notable, not for his somewhat insignificant political
career, but as a patron of literature, as a writer on his own account,
and because his house was the centre and the headquarters of the Whig
political and literary world of the time; and Lady Holland (who died on
the 16th of November 1845) succeeded in taking the sort of place in
London which had been filled in Paris during the 18th century by the
society ladies who kept "salons." Lord Holland's _Foreign Reminiscences_
(1850) contain much amusing gossip from the Revolutionary and Napoleonic
era. His _Memoirs of the Whig Party_ (1852) is an important contemporary
authority. His small work on _Lope de Vega_ (1806) is still of some
value. Holland had two legitimate sons, Stephen, who died in 1800, and
Henry Edward, who became 4th Lord Holland. When this peer died in
December 1859 the title became extinct.
See _The Journal of Elizabeth, Lady Holland_, edited by the earl of
Ilchester (1908); and Lloyd Sanders, _The Holland House Circle_
(1908).
HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881), American author and editor, was
born in Belchertown, Massachusetts, on the 24th of July 1819. He
graduated in 1843 at the Berkshire Medical College (no longer in
existence) at Pittsfield, Mass., and after practising medicine in
1844-1847, and making an unsuccessful attempt, with Charles Robinson
(1818-1894), later first governor of the state of Kansas, to establish a
hospital for women, he taught for a brief period in Richmond, Virginia,
and in 1848 was superintendent of schools in Vicksburg, Mississippi. In
1849 he became assistant editor under Samuel Bowles, and three years
later one of the owners, of the Springfield (Massachusetts)
_Republican_, with which he retained his connexion until 1867. He then
travelled for some time in Europe, and in 1870 removed to New York,
where he helped to establish and became editor and one-third owner of
_Scribner's Monthly_ (the title of which was changed in 1881 to _The
Century_), which absorbed the periodicals _Hours at Home_, _Putnam's
Magazine_ and the _Riverside Magazine_. He remained editor of this
magazine until his death. Dr Holland's books long enjoyed a wide
popularity. The earlier ones were published over the pseudonym "Timothy
Titcomb." His writings fall into four classes: history and biography,
represented by a _History of Western Massachusetts_ (1855), and a _Life
of Abraham Lincoln_ (1865); fiction, of which _Miss Gilbert's Career_
(1860) and _The Story of Sevenoaks_ (1875) remain faithful pictures of
village life in eastern United States; poetry, of which _Bitter-Sweet_
(1858) and _Kathrina, Her Life and Mine_ (1867) were widely read; and a
series of homely essays on the art of living, of which the most
characteristic were _Letters to Young People, Single and Married_
(1858), _Gold Foil, hammered from Popular Proverbs_ (1859), _Letters to
the Jonses_ (1863), and _Every-Day Topics_ (2 series, 1876 and 1882).
While a resident of New York, where he died on the 12th of October 1881,
he identified himself with measures for good government and school
reform, and in 1872 became a member and for a short time in 1873 was
president of the Board of Education.
See Mrs H. M. Plunkett's _Josiah Gilbert Holland_ (New York, 1894).
HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637), English scholar, "the translator-general
in his age," was born at Chelmsford in Essex. He was the son of a
clergyman, John Holland, who had been obliged to take refuge in Germany
and Denmark with Miles Coverdale during the Marian persecution. Having
become a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and taken the degree of
M.A., he was incorporated at Oxford (July 11th, 1585). Having
subsequently studied medicine, about 1595 he settled as a doctor in
Coventry, but chiefly occupied himself with translations. In 1628 he was
appointed headmaster of the free school, but, owing probably to
advancing age, he held office for only eleven months. His latter days
were oppressed by poverty, partly relieved by the generosity of the
common council of Coventry, which in 1632 assigned him L3, 6s. 8d. for
three years, "if he should live so long." He died on the 9th of
February, 1636-1637. His fame is due solely to his translations, which
included Livy, Pliny's _Natural History_, Plutarch's _Morals_,
Suetonius, Ammianus Marcellinus and Xenophon's _Cyropaedia_. He
published also an English version, with additions, of Camden's
_Britannia_. His Latin translation of Brice Bauderon's _Pharmacopaea_
and his _Regimen sanitatis Salerni_ were published after his death by
his son, HENRY HOLLAND (1583-?1650), who became a London bookseller, and
is known to bibliographers for his _Bazili[omega]logia; a Booke of
Kings, beeing the true and liuely Effigies of all our English Kings from
the Conquest_ (1618), and his _Her[omega]ologia Anglica_ (1620).
HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450), Scottish writer,
author of the _Buke of the Howlat_, was secretary or chaplain to the
earl of Moray (1450) and rector of Halkirk, near Thurso. He was
afterwards rector of Abbreochy, Loch Ness, and later held a chantry in
the cathedral of Norway. He was an ardent partisan of the Douglases, and
on their overthrow retired to Orkney and later to Shetland. He was
employed by Edward IV. in his attempt to rouse the Western Isles through
Douglas agency, and in 1482 was excluded from the general pardon granted
by James III. to those who would renounce their fealty to the Douglases.
The poem, entitled the _Buke of the Howlat_, written about 1450, shows
his devotion to the house of Douglas:--
"On ilk beugh till embrace
Writtin in a bill was
O Dowglass, O Dowglass
Tender and trewe!"
(ii. 400-403).
and is dedicated to the wife of a Douglas--
"Thus for ane Dow of Dunbar drew I this Dyte,
Dowit with ane Dowglass, and boith war thei dowis."
but all theories of its being a political allegory in favour of that
house may be discarded. Sir Walter Scott's judgment that the _Buke_ is
"a poetical apologue ... without any view whatever to local or natural
politics" is certainly the most reasonable. The poem, which extends to
1001 lines written in the irregular alliterative rhymed stanza, is a
bird-allegory, of the type familiar in the _Parlement of Foules_. It has
the incidental interest of showing (especially in stanzas 62 and 63) the
antipathy of the "Inglis-speaking Scot" to the "Scots-speaking Gael" of
the west, as is also shown in Dunbar's _Flyting with Kennedy_.
The text of the poem is preserved in the Asloan and Bannatyne MSS.
Fragments of an early 16th century black-letter edition, discovered by
D. Laing, are reproduced in the _Adversaria_ of the Bannatyne Club.
The poem has been frequently reprinted, by Pinkerton, in his _Scottish
Poems_ (1792); by D. Laing (Bannatyne Club 1823; reprinted in "New
Club" series, Paisley, 1882); by the Hunterian Club in their edition
of the Bannatyne MS., and by A. Diebler (Chemnitz, 1893). The latest
edition is that by F. J. Amours in _Scottish Alliterative Poems_
(Scottish Text Society, 1897), pp. 47-81. (See also Introduction pp.
xx.-xxxiv.)
HOLLAND, officially the kingdom of the Netherlands (_Koningrijk der
Nederlanden_), a maritime country in the north-west of Europe. The name
Holland is that of the former countship, which forms part of the
political, as well as the geographical centre of the kingdom (see the
next article).
_Topography._--Holland is bounded on the E. by Germany, on the S. by
Belgium, on the W. and N. by the North Sea, and at the N.E. corner by
the Dollart. From Stevensweert southward to the extreme corner of
Limburg the boundary line is formed by the river Maas or Meuse.[1] On
the east a natural geographical boundary was formed by the long line of
marshy fens extending along the borders of Overysel, Drente and
Groningen. The kingdom extends from 53 deg. 32' 21" (Groningen Cape on
Rottum Island) to 50 deg. 45' 49" N. (Mesch in the province of
Limburg), and from 3 deg. 23' 27" (Sluis in the province of Zeeland) to
7 deg. 12' 20" E. (Langakkerschans in the province of Groningen). The
greatest length from north to south, viz. that from Rottum Island to
Eisden near Maastricht is 164 m., and the greatest breadth from
south-west to north-east, or from Zwin near Sluis to Losser in Overysel,
144 m. The area is subject to perpetual variation owing, on the one
hand, to the erosion of the coasts, and, on the other, to reclamation of
land by means of endiking and drainage operations. In 1889 the total
area was calculated at 12,558 sq. m., and, including the Zuider Zee and
the Wadden (2050 sq. m.) and the Dutch portion of the Dollart (23 sq.
m.), 14,613 sq. m. In no country in Europe has the character of the
territory exercised so great an influence on the inhabitants as in the
Netherlands; and, on the other hand, no people has so extensively
modified the condition of its territory as the Dutch. The greatest
importance attaches therefore to the physical conformation of the
country.
Coast.
The coast-line extends in a double curve from south-west to
north-east, and is formed by a row of sand dunes, 171 m. in length,
fringed by a broad sandy beach descending very gradually into the sea.
In the north and south, however, this line is broken by the inlets of
the sea which form the Frisian and the South Holland and Zeeland
islands respectively; but the dunes themselves are found continued
along the seaward side of these islands, thus indicating the original
continuity of the coast-line. The breadth of the dunes naturally
varies greatly, the maximum width of about 4375 yds. being found at
Schoorl, north-west of Alkmaar. The average height of the individual
dune-tops is not above 33 ft., but attains a maximum of 197 ft. at the
High Blinkert, near Haarlem. The steepness of the dunes on the side
towards the sea is caused by the continual erosion, probably
traceable, in part at least, to the channel current (which at mean
tide has a velocity of 14 or 15 in. per second), and to the strong
west or north-west winds which carry off large quantities of material.
This alteration of coast-line appears at Loosduinen, where the moor or
fenland formerly developed behind the dunes now crops out on the shore
amid the sand, being pressed to the compactness of lignite by the
weight of the sand drifted over it. Again, the remains of the Roman
camp Brittenburg or Huis te Britten, which originally lay within the
dunes and, after being covered by them, emerged again in 1520, were,
in 1694, 1600 paces out to sea, opposite Katwijk; while, besides
Katwijk itself, several other villages of the west coast, as Domburg,
Scheveningen, Egmond, have been removed further inland. The tendency
of the dunes to drift off on the landward side is prevented by the
planting of bent-grass (_Arundo arenaria_), whose long roots serve to
bind the sand together. It must be further remarked that both the
"dune-pans," or depressions, which are naturally marshy through their
defective drainage, and the _geest_ grounds--that is, the grounds
along the foot of the downs--have been in various places either
planted with wood or turned into arable and pasture land; while the
numerous springs at the base of the dunes are of the utmost value to
the great cities situated on the marshy soil inland, the example set
by Amsterdam in 1853 in supplying itself with this water having been
readily followed by Leiden, the Hague, Flushing, &c.
As already remarked, the coast-line of Holland breaks up into a series
of islands at its northern and southern extremities. The principal
sea-inlets in the north are the Texel Gat or Marsdiep and the Vlie,
which lead past the chain of the Frisian Islands into the large inland
sea or gulf called the Zuider Zee, and the Wadden or "shallows," which
extend along the shores of Friesland and Groningen as far as the
Dollart and the mouth of the Ems. The inland sea-board thus formed
consists of low coasts of sea-clay protected by dikes, and of some
high diluvial strata which rise far enough above the level of the sea
to make dikes unnecessary, as in the case of the Gooi hills between
Naarden and the Eem, the Veluwe hills between Nykerk and Elburg, and
the steep cliffs of the Gaasterland between Oude Mirdum and Stavoren.
The Dollart was formed in 1277 by the inundation of the Ems basin,
more than thirty villages being destroyed at once. The Zuider Zee and
the bay in the Frisian coast known as the Lauwers Zee also gradually
came into existence in the 13th century. The extensive sea-arms
forming the South Holland and Zeeland archipelago are the Hont or West
Scheldt, the East Scheldt, the Grevelingen (communicating with Krammer
and the Volkerak) and the Haringvliet, which after being joined by the
Volkerak is known as the Hollandsch Diep. These inlets were formerly
of much greater extent than now, but are gradually closing up owing to
the accumulation of mud deposits, and no longer have the same freedom
of communication with one another. At the head of the Hollandsch Diep
is the celebrated railway bridge of the Moerdyk (1868-1871) 1607 yds.
in length; and above this bridge lies the Biesbosch ("reed forest"), a
group of marshy islands formed by a disastrous inundation in 1421,
when seventy-two villages and upwards of 100,000 lives were destroyed.
Relief and levels.
Besides the dunes the only hilly regions of Holland are the southern
half of the province of Limburg, the neighbourhood of Nijmwegen, the
hills of Utrecht, including the Gooi hills, the Veluwe region in
Gelderland, the isolated hills in the middle and east of Overysel and
the Hondsrug range in Drente. The remainder of the country is flat,
and shows a regular downward slope from south-east to north-west, in
which direction the rivers mainly flow. The elevation of the surface
of the country ranges between the extreme height of 1057 ft. near
Vaals in the farthest corner of Limburg, and 16-20 ft. below the
Amsterdam zero[2] in some of the drained lands in the western half of
the country. In fact, one quarter of the whole kingdom, consisting of
the provinces of North and South Holland, the western portion of
Utrecht as far as the Vaart Rhine, Zeeland, except the southern part
of Zeeland-Flanders, and the north-west part of North Brabant, lies
below the Amsterdam zero; and altogether 38% of the country, or all
that part lying west of a line drawn through Groningen, Utrecht and
Antwerp, lies within one metre above the Amsterdam zero and would be
submerged if the sea broke down the barrier of dunes and dikes. This
difference between the eastern and western divisions of Holland has
its counterpart in the landscape and the nature of the soil. The
western division consists of low fen or clay soil and presents a
monotonous expanse of rich meadow-land, carefully drained in regular
lines of canals bordered by stunted willows, and dotted over with
windmills, the sails of canal craft and the clumps of elm and poplar
which surround each isolated farm-house. The landscape of the eastern
division is considered less typical. Here the soil consists mainly of
sand and gravel, and the prevailing scenery is formed of waste heaths
and patches of wood, while here and there fertile meadows extend along
the banks of the streams, and the land is laid out in the highly
regular manner characteristic of fen reclamation (see DRENTE).
Rivers.
The entire drainage of Holland is into the North Sea. The three
principal rivers are the Rhine, the Maas (Meuse) and the Scheldt
(Schelde), and all three have their origin outside the country, whilst
the Scheldt has its mouth only in Holland, giving its name to the two
broad inlets of the sea which bound the Zeeland islands. The Rhine in
its course through Holland is merely the parent stream of several
important branches, splitting up into Rhine and Waal, Rhine and Ysel,
Crooked Rhine and Lek (which takes two-thirds of the waters), and at
Utrecht into Old Rhine and Vecht, finally reaching the sea through the
sluices at Katwijk as little more than a drainage canal. The Ysel and
the Vecht flow to the Zuider Zee; the other branches to the North Sea.
The Maas, whose course is almost parallel to that of the Rhine,
follows in a wide curve the general slope of the country, receiving
the Roer, the Mark and the Aa. Towards its mouth its waters find their
way into all the channels intersecting the South Holland archipelago.
The main stream joining the Waal at Gorinchem flows on to Dordrecht as
the Merwede, and is continued thence to the sea by the Old Maas, the
North, and the New Maas, the New Maas being formed by the junction of
the Lek and the North. From Gorinchem the New Merwede (constructed in
the second half of the 19th century) extends between dykes through the
marshes of the Biesbosch to the Hollandsch Diep. These great rivers
render very important service as waterways. The mean velocity of their
flow seldom exceeds 4.9 ft., but rises to 6.4 ft. when the river is
high. In the lower reaches of the streams the velocity and slope are
of course affected by the tides. In the Waal ordinary high water is
perceptible as far up as Zalt Bommel in Gelderland, in the Lek the
maximum limits or ordinary and spring tides are at Vianen and
Kuilenburg respectively, in the Ysel above the Katerveer at the
junction of the Willemsvaart and past Wyhe midway between Zwolle and
Deventer; and in the Maas near Heusden and at Well in Limburg. Into
the Zuider Zee there also flow the Kuinder, the Zwarte Water, with its
tributary the Vecht, and the Eem. The total length of navigable
channels is about 1150 m., but sand banks and shallows not
infrequently impede the shipping traffic at low water during the
summer. The smaller streams are often of great importance. Except
where they rise in the fens they call into life a strip of fertile
grassland in the midst of the barren sand, and are responsible for the
existence of many villages along their banks. Following the example of
the great Kampen irrigation canal in Belgium, artificial irrigation is
also practised by means of some of the smaller streams, especially in
North Brabant, Drente and Overysel, and in the absence of streams,
canals and sluices are sometimes specially constructed to perform the
same service. The low-lying spaces at the confluences of the rivers,
being readily laid under water, have been not infrequently chosen as
sites for fortresses. As a matter of course, the streams are also
turned to account in connexion with the canal system--the Dommel,
Berkel, Vecht, Regge, Holland Ysel, Gouwe, Rotte, Schie, Spaarne,
Zaan, Amstel, Dieze, Amer, Mark, Zwarte Water, Kuinder and the
numerous Aas in Drente and Groningen being the most important in this
respect.
Lakes.
It is unnecessary to mention the names of the numerous marshy lakes
which exist, especially in Friesland and Groningen, and are connected
with rivers or streamlets. Those of Friesland are of note for the
abundance of their fish and their beauty of situation, on which last
account the Uddelermeer in Gelderland is also celebrated. The Rockanje
Lake near Brielle is remarkable for the strong salty solution which
covers even the growing reeds with a hard crust. Many of the lakes
are nothing more than deep pits or marshes from which the peat has
been extracted.
[Illustration: Holland Map.]
_Dikes._--The circumstance that so much of Holland is below the
sea-level necessarily exercises a very important influence on the
drainage, the climate and the sanitary conditions of the country, as
well as on its defence by means of inundation. The endiking of low lands
against the sea which had been quietly proceeding during the first
eleven centuries of the Christian era, received a fresh impetus in the
12th and 13th centuries from the fact that the level of the sea then
became higher in relation to that of the land. This fact is illustrated
by the broadening of river mouths and estuaries at this time, and the
beginning of the formation of the Zuider Zee. A new feature in diking
was the construction of dams or sluices across the mouths of rivers,
sometimes with important consequences for the villages situated on the
spot. Thus the dam on the Amstel (1257) was the origin of Amsterdam, and
the dam on the Ye gave rise to Edam. But Holland's chief protection
against inundation is its long line of sand dunes, in which only two
real breaches have been effected during the centuries of erosion. These
are represented by the famous sea dikes called the Westkapelle dike and
the Hondsbossche Zeewering, or sea-defence, which were begun
respectively in the first and second halves of the 15th century. The
first extends for a distance of over 4000 yds. between the villages of
Westkapelle and Domburg in the island of Walcheren; the second is about
4900 yds. long, and extends from Kamperduin to near Petten, whence it is
continued for another 1100 yds. by the Pettemer dike. These two sea
dikes were reconstructed by the state at great expense between the year
1860 and 1884, having consisted before that time of little more than a
protected sand dike. The earthen dikes are protected by stone-slopes and
by piles, and at the more dangerous points also by _zinkstukken_
(sinking pieces), artificial structures of brushwood laden with stones,
and measuring some 400 yds. in circuit, by means of which the current is
to some extent turned aside. The Westkapelle dike, 12,468 ft. long, has
a seaward slope of 300 ft., and is protected by rows of piles and basalt
blocks. On its ridge, 39 ft. broad, there is not only a roadway but a
service railway. The cost of its upkeep is more than L6000 a year, and
of the Hondsbossche Zeewering L2000 a year. When it is remembered that
the woodwork is infested by the pile worm (_Teredo navalis_), the
ravages of which were discovered in 1731, the labour and expense
incurred in the construction and maintenance of the sea dikes now
existing may be imagined. In other parts of the coast the dunes, though
not pierced through, have become so wasted by erosion as to require
artificial strengthening. This is afforded, either by means of a
so-called sleeping dike (_slaperdyk_) behind the weak spot, as, for
instance, between Kadzand and Breskens in Zeeland-Flanders, and again
between 's Gravenzande and Loosduinen; or by means of piers or
breakwaters (_hoofden_, heads) projecting at intervals into the sea and
composed of piles, or brushwood and stones. The first of such
breakwaters was that constructed in 1857 at the north end of the island
of Goeree, and extends over 100 yds. into the sea at low water. Similar
constructions are to be found on the seaward side of the islands of
Walcheren, Schouwen and Voorne, and between 's Gravenzande and
Scheveningen, and Katwijk and Noordwijk. Owing to the obstruction which
they offer to drifting sands, artificial dunes are in course of time
formed about them, and in this way they become at once more effective
and less costly to maintain. The firm and regular dunes which now run
from Petten to Kallantsoog (formerly an island), and thence northwards
to Huisduinen, were thus formed about the Zyper (1617) and Koegras
(1610) dikes respectively. From Huisduinen to Nieuwediep the dunes are
replaced by the famous Helder sea-wall. The shores of the Zuider Zee and
the Wadden, and the Frisian and Zuider Zee islands, are also partially
protected by dikes. In more than one quarter the dikes have been
repeatedly extended so as to enclose land conquered from the sea, the
work of reclamation being aided by a natural process. Layer upon layer
of clay is deposited by the sea in front of the dikes, until a new
fringe has been added to the coast-line on which sea-grasses grasses
begin to grow. Upon these clay-lands (_kwelders_) horses, cattle and
sheep are at last able to pasture at low tide, and in course of time
they are in turn endiked.
River dikes are as necessary as sea dikes, elevated banks being found
only in a few places, as on the Lower Rhine. Owing to the unsuitability
of the foundations, Dutch dikes are usually marked by a great width,
which at the crown varies between 13 and 26 ft. The height of the dike
ranges to 40 in. above high water-level. Between the dikes and the
stream lie "forelands" (_interwaarden_), which are usually submerged in
winter, and frequently lie 1 or 2 yds, higher than the country within
the dikes. These forelands also offer in course of time an opportunity
for endiking and reclamation. In this way the towns of Rotterdam,
Schiedam, Vlaardingen and Maasluis have all gradually extended over the
Maas dike in order to keep in touch with the river, and the small town
of Delftshaven is built altogether on the outer side of the same dike.
_Impoldering._--The first step in the reclamation of land is to
"impolder" it, or convert it into a "polder" (i.e. a section of
artificially drained land), by surrounding it with dikes or quays for
the two-fold purpose of protecting it from all further inundation from
outside and of controlling the amount of water inside. Impoldering for
its own sake or on a large scale was impossible as long as the means
of drainage were restricted. But in the beginning of the 15th century
new possibilities were revealed by the adaptation of the windmill to
the purpose of pumping water. It was gradually recognized that the
masses of water which collected wherever peat-digging had been carried
on were an unnecessary menace to the neighbouring lands, and also that
a more enduring source of profit lay in the bed of the fertile
sea-clay under the peat. It became usual, therefore, to make the
subsequent drainage of the land a condition of the extraction of peat
from it, this condition being established by proclamation in 1595.
_Drainage._--It has been shown that the western provinces of Holland
may be broadly defined as lying below sea-level. In fact the surface
of the sea-clay in these provinces is from 11(1/2) to 16(1/2) ft.
below the Amsterdam zero. The ground-water is, therefore, relatively
very high and the capacity of the soil for further absorption
proportionately low. To increase the reservoir capacity of the polder,
as well as to conduct the water to the windmills or engines, it is
intersected by a network of ditches cut at right angles to each other,
the amount of ditching required being usually one-twelfth of the area
to be drained. In modern times pumping engines have replaced
windmills, and the typical old Dutch landscape with its countless
hooded heads and swinging arms has been greatly transformed by the
advent of the chimney stacks of the pumping-stations. The power of the
pumping-engines is taken on the basis of 12 h.p. per 1000 hectares for
every metre that the water has to be raised, or stated in another
form, the engines must be capable of raising nearly 9 lb. of water
through 1 yd. per acre per minute. The main ditches, or canals,
afterwards also serve as a means of navigation. The level at which it
is desired to keep the water in these ditches constitutes the unit of
water measurement for the polder, and is called the polder's _zomer
peil_ (Z.P.) or summer water-level. In pasture-polders (_koepolders_)
Z.P. is 1 to 1(1/2) ft. below the level of the polder, and in
agricultural polders 2(1/2) to 3(1/2) ft. below. Owing to the
shrinkage of the soil in reclaimed lands, however, that is, lands
which have been drained after fen or other reclamation, the sides of
the polder are often higher than the middle, and it is necessary by
means of small dams or sluices to make separate water-tight
compartments (_afpolderingen_), each having its own unit of
measurement. Some polders also have a winter peil as a precaution
against the increased fall of water in that season. The summer
water-level of the pasture polders south of the former Y is about 4 to
8 ft. below the Amsterdam zero, but in the Noorderkwartier to the
north, it reaches 10(1/2) ft. below A. P. in the Beschotel polder, and
in reclaimed lands (_droogmakerijen_) may be still lower, thus in the
Reeuwyk polder north of Gouda it is 21(1/4) ft. below.
The drainage of the country is effected by natural or artificial
means, according to the slope of the ground. Nearly all the polders of
Zeeland and South Holland are able to discharge naturally into the sea
at average low water, self-regulating sluices being used. But in North
Holland and Utrecht on the contrary the polder water has generally to
be raised. In some deep polders and drained lands where the water
cannot be brought to the required height at once, windmills are found
at two or even three different levels. The final removal of polder
water, however, is only truly effected upon its discharge into the
"outer waters" of the country, that is, the sea itself or the large
rivers freely communicating with it; and this happens with but a small
proportion of Dutch polders, such as those of Zeeland, the Holland
Ysel and the Noorderkwartier.
As the system of impoldering extended, the small sluggish rivers were
gradually cut off by dikes from the marshy lands through which they
flowed, and by sluices from the waters with which they communicated.
Their level ranges from about 1(1/2) to 4 ft. above that of the pasture
polders. In addition, various kinds of canals and endiked or embanked
lakes had come into existence, forming altogether a vast network of
more or less stagnant waters. These waters are utilized as the
temporary reservoirs of the superfluous polder water, each system of
reservoirs being termed a _boezem_ (bosom or basin), and all lands
watering into the same boezem being considered as belonging to it. The
largest boezem is that of Friesland, which embraces nearly the whole
province. It sometimes happens that a polder is not in direct contact
with the boezem to which it belongs, but first drains into an adjacent
polder, from which the water is afterwards removed. In the same way,
some boezems discharge first into others, which then discharge into
the sea or rivers. This is usually the case where there is a great
difference in height between the surface of the boezem and the outer
waters, and may be illustrated by the Alblasserwaard and the Rotte
boezems in the provinces of South and North Holland respectively. In
time of drought the water in the canals and boezems is allowed to run
back into the polders, and so serve a double purpose as
water-reservoirs. Boezems, like polders, have a standard water-level
which may hot be exceeded, and as in the polder this level may vary in
the different parts of an extended boezem. The height of the _boezem
peil_ ranges between 1(1/3) ft. above to 1(5/6) ft. below the
Amsterdam zero, though the average is about 1 to 1(2/3) ft. below.
Some boezems, again, which are less easily controlled, have a "danger
water-level" at which they refuse to receive any more water from the
surrounding polders. The Schie or Delflands boezem of South Holland is
of this kind, and such a boezem is termed _besloten_ or "sequestered,"
in contradistinction to a "free" boezem. A third kind of boezem is the
reserve or _berg-boezem_, which in summer may be made dry and used for
agriculture, while in winter it serves as a special reserve. The
centuries of labour and self-sacrifice involved in the making of this
complete and harmonious system of combined defence and reclamation are
better imagined than described, and even at the present day the
evidences of the struggle are far less apparent than real.
_Geology._--Except in Limburg, where, in the neighbourhood of
Maastricht, the upper layers of the chalk are exposed and followed by
Oligocene and Miocene beds, the whole of Holland is covered by recent
deposits of considerable thickness, beneath which deep borings have
revealed the existence of Pliocene beds similar to the "Crags" of East
Anglia. They are divided into the _Diestien_, corresponding in part
with the English Coralline Crag, the _Scaldisien_ and _Poederlien_
corresponding with the Walton Crag, and the _Amstelien_ corresponding
with the Red Crag of Suffolk. In the south of Holland the total
thickness of the Pliocene series is only about 200 ft., and they are
covered by about 100 ft. of Quaternary deposits; but towards the north
the beds sink down and at the same time increase considerably in
thickness, so that at Utrecht a deep boring reached the top of the
Pliocene at a depth of 513 ft. and at 1198 ft. it had not touched the
bottom. At Amsterdam the top of the Pliocene lay 625 ft. below the
surface, but the boring, 1098 ft. deep, did not reach the base of the
uppermost division of the Pliocene, viz. the _Amstelien_. Eastward and
westward of Amsterdam, as well as southward, the Pliocene beds rise
slowly to the surface, and gradually decrease in thickness. They were
laid down in a broad bay which covered the east of England and nearly
the whole of the Netherlands, and was open to the North Sea. There is
evidence that the sea gradually retreated northwards during the
deposition of these beds, until at length the Rhine flowed over to
England and entered the sea north of Cromer. The appearance of
northern shells in the upper divisions of the Pliocene series
indicates the approach of the Glacial period, and glacial drift
containing Scandinavian boulders now covers much of the country east
of the Zuider Zee. The more modern deposits of Holland consist of
alluvium, wind-blown sands and peat.[3]
_Climate._--Situated in the temperate zone between 50 deg. and 53 deg.
N. the climate of Holland shows a difference in the lengths of day and
night extending in the north to nine hours, and there is a
correspondingly wide range of temperature; it also belongs to the
region of variable winds. On an average of fifty years the mean annual
temperature was 49.8 deg. Fahr.; the maximum, 93.9 deg. Fahr.; the
minimum, -5.8 deg. Fahr. The mean annual barometric height is 29.93
in.; the mean annual moisture, 81%; the mean annual rainfall, 27.99
in. The mean annual number of days with rain is 204, with snow 19, and
with thunder-storms 18. The increased rainfall from July to December
(the summer and autumn rains), and the increased evaporation in spring
and summer (5.2 in. more than the rainfall), are of importance as
regards "poldering" and draining operations. The prevalence of
south-west winds during nine months of the year and of north-west
during three (April-June) has a strong influence on the temperature
and rainfall, tides, river mouths and outlets, and also, geologically,
on dunes and sand drifts, and on fens and the accumulation of clay on
the coast. The west winds of course increase the moisture, and
moderate both the winter cold and the summer heat, while the east
winds blowing over the continent have an opposite influence. It
cannot be said that the climate is particularly good, owing to the
changeableness of the weather, which may alter completely within a
single day. The heavy atmosphere likewise, and the necessity of living
within doors or in confined localities, cannot but exercise an
influence on the character and temperament of the inhabitants. Only of
certain districts, however, can it be said that they are positively
unhealthy; to this category belong some parts of the Holland
provinces, Zeeland, and Friesland, where the inhabitants are exposed
to the exhalations from the marshy ground, and the atmosphere is often
burdened with sea-fogs.
_Fauna._--In the densely populated Netherlands, with no extensive
forests, the fauna does not present any unusual varieties. The otter,
martin and badger may be mentioned among the rarer wild animals, and
the weasel, ermine and pole-cat among the more common. In the 18th
century wolves still roamed the country in such large numbers that
hunting parties were organized against them; now they are unknown.
Roebuck and deer are found in a wild state in Gelderland and Overysel,
foxes are plentiful in the dry wooded regions on the borders of the
country, and hares and rabbits in the dunes and other sandy stretches.
Among birds may be reckoned about two hundred and forty different
kinds which are regular inhabitants, although nearly two hundred of
these are migratory. The woodcock, partridge, hawk, water-ousel,
magpie, jay, raven, various kinds of owls, wood-pigeon, golden-crested
wren, tufted lark and titmouse are among the birds which breed here.
Birds of passage include the buzzard, kite, quail, wild fowl of
various kinds, golden thrush, wagtail, linnet, finch and nightingale.
Storks are plentiful in summer and might almost be considered the most
characteristic feature of the prevailing landscape.
_Flora._--The flora may be most conveniently dealt with in the four
physiographical divisions to which it belongs. These are, namely, the
heath-lands, pasture-lands, dunes and coasts. Heath (_Erica tetralix_)
and ling (_Calluna vulgaris_) cover all the waste sandy regions in the
eastern division of the country. The vegetation of the meadow-lands is
monotonous. In the more damp and marshy places the bottom is covered
with marsh trefoil, carex, smooth equisetum, and rush. In the ditches
and pools common yellow and white water-lilies are seen, as well as
water-soldier (_Stratiotes aloides_), great and lesser reed-mace,
sweet flag and bur-reed. The plant forms of the dunes are stunted and
meagre as compared with the same forms elsewhere. The most common
plant here is the stiff sand-reed (_Arundo arenaria_), called
sand-oats in Drente and Overysel, where it is much used for making
mats. Like the sand-reed, the dewberry bramble and the shrub of the
buckthorn (_Hippophae rhamnoides_) perform a useful service in helping
to bind the sand together. Furze and the common juniper are regular
dune plants, and may also be found on the heaths of Drente, Overysel
and Gelderland. Thyme and the small white dune-rose (_Rosa
pimpinellifolia_) also grow in the dunes, and wall-pepper (_Sedum
acre_), field fever-wort, reindeer moss, common asparagus, sheep's
fescue grass, the pretty Solomon-seal (_Polygonatum officinale_), and
the broad-leaved or marsh orchis (_Orchis latifolia_). The sea-plants
which flourish on the sand and mud-banks along the coasts greatly
assist the process of littoral deposits and are specially cultivated
in places. Sea-aster flourishes in the Wadden of Friesland and
Groningen, the Dollart and the Zeeland estuaries, giving place nearer
the shore to sandspurry (_Spergularia_), or sea-poa or floating meadow
grass (_Glyceria maritima_), which grows up to the dikes, and affords
pasture for cattle and sheep. Along the coast of Overysel and in the
Biesbosch lake club-rush, or scirpus, is planted in considerable
quantities for the hat-making industry, and common sea-wrack (_Zostera
marina_) is found in large patches in the northern half of the Zuider
Zee, where it is gathered for trade purposes during the months of
June, July and August. Except for the willow-plots found along the
rivers on the clay lands, nearly all the wood is confined to the sand
and gravel soils, where copses of birch and alder are common.
_Population._--The following table shows the area and population in the
eleven provinces of the Netherlands:--
+--------------+-------+----------+------------+-----------+
| |Area in|Population| Population |Density per|
| Province | sq. m.| 1890. | 1900. | sq. m. in |
| | | | | 1900. |
+--------------+-------+----------+------------+-----------+
| North Brabant| 1,980 | 509,628 | 553,842 | 280 |
| Gelderland | 1,965 | 512,202 | 566,549 | 288 |
| South Holland| 1,166 | 949,641 | 1,144,448 | 981 |
| North Holland| 1,070 | 829,489 | 968,131 | 905 |
| Zeeland | 690 | 199,234 | 216,295 | 313 |
| Utrecht | 534 | 221,007 | 251,034 | 470 |
| Friesland | 1,282 | 335,558 | 340,262 | 265 |
| Overysel | 1,291 | 295,445 | 333,338 | 258 |
| Groningen | 790 | 272,786 | 299,602 | 379 |
| Drente | 1,030 | 130,704 | 148,544 | 144 |
| Limburg | 850 | 255,721 | 281,934 | 332 |
| +-------+----------+------------+-----------+
| Total |12,648 |4,511,415 | 5,104,137* | 404 |
+--------------+-------+----------+------------+-----------+
* This total includes 158 persons assigned to no province.
The extremes of density of population are found in the provinces of
North Holland and South Holland on the one hand, and Drente on the
other. This divergence is partly explained by the difference of
soil--which in Drente comprises the maximum of waste lands, and in South
Holland the minimum--and partly also by the greater facilities which the
seaward provinces enjoy of earning a subsistence, and the greater
variety of their industries. The largest towns are Amsterdam, Rotterdam,
the Hague, Utrecht, Groningen, Haarlem, Arnhem, Leiden, Nijmwegen,
Tilburg. Other considerable towns are Dordrecht, Maastricht, Leeuwarden,
Zwolle, Delft, 's Hertogenbosch, Schiedam, Deventer, Breda, Apeldoorn,
Helder, Enschede, Gouda, Zaandam, Kampen, Hilversum, Flushing,
Amersfoort, Middelburg, Zutphen and Alkmaar. Many of the smaller towns,
such as Assen, Enschede, Helmond, Hengelo, Tiel, Venlo, Vlaardingen,
Zaandam, Yerseke, show a great development, and it is a noteworthy fact
that the rural districts, taken as a whole, have borne an equal share in
the general increase of population. This, taken in conjunction with the
advance in trade and shipping, the diminution in emigration, and the
prosperity of the savings banks, points to a favourable state in the
condition of the people.
Roads.
_Communications._--The roads are divided into national or royal roads,
placed directly under the control of the _water-staat_ and supported
by the state; provincial roads, under the direct control of the states
of the provinces, and almost all supported by the provincial
treasuries; communal and polder roads, maintained by the communal
authorities and the polder boards; and finally, private roads. The
system of national roads, mainly constructed between 1821 and 1827,
but still in process of extension, brings into connexion nearly all
the towns.
Canals.
The canal system of Holland is peculiarly complete and extends into
every part of the country, giving to many inland towns almost a
maritime appearance. The united length of the canals exceeds 1500 m.
As a matter of course the smaller streams have been largely utilized
in their formation, while the necessity for a comprehensive drainage
system has also contributed in no small degree. During the years
1815-1830 a large part of the extensive scheme of construction
inaugurated by King William I. was carried out, the following canals,
among others, coming into existence in that period: the North Holland
ship canal (depth, 16(1/2) ft.) from Amsterdam to den Helder, the
Grift canal between Apeldoorn and Hattem, the Willemsvaart connecting
Zwolle with the Ysel, the Zuid Willemsvaart, or South William's canal
(6(1/2) ft.), from 's Hertogenbosch to Maastricht, and the
Ternuzen-Ghent ship canal. After 1849 the canal programme was again
taken up by the state, which alone or in conjunction with the
provincial authorities constructed the Apeldoorn-Dieren canal
(1859-1869), the drainage canals of the "Peel" marsh in North Brabant,
and of the eastern provinces, namely, the Deurne canal (1876-1892)
from the Maas to Helenaveen, the Almelo (1851-1858) and Overysel
(1884-1888) canals from Zwolle, Deventer and Almelo to Koevorden, and
the Stieltjes (1880-1884), and Orange (1853-1858 and 1881-1889) canals
in Drente, the North Williams canal (1856-1862) between Assen and
Groningen, the Ems (1866-1876) ship canal from Groningen to Delfzyl,
and the New Merwede, and enlarged the canal from Harlingen by way of
Leeuwarden to the Lauwars Zee. The large ship canals to Rotterdam and
Amsterdam, called the New Waterway and the North Sea canal
respectively, were constructed in 1866-1872 and 1865-1876 at a cost of
2(1/2) and 3 million pounds sterling, the former by widening the
channel of the Scheur north of Rozenburg, and cutting across the Hook
of Holland, the latter by utilizing the bed of the Y and cutting
through the dunes at Ymuiden. In 1876 an agreement was arrived at with
Germany for connecting the important drainage canals in Overysel,
Drente and Groningen with the Ems canal system, as a result of which
the Almelo-Noordhorn (1884-1888) and other canals came into existence.
The canals differ in character in the different provinces. In Zeeland
they connect the towns of the interior with the sea or the river
mouths; for example, the one from Middelburg to Veere and Flushing
(1866-1878), from Goes to the East Scheldt, and from Zierikzee also to
the East Scheldt. The South Beveland (1862-1866) canal connects the
East and West Scheldt; similarly in South Holland the Voorne canal
unites the Haringvliet with the New Maas, which does not allow the
passage of large vessels above Brielle; whilst owing lo the banks and
shallows in front of Hellevoetsluis the New Waterway was cut to
Rotterdam. Of another character is the Zederik canal, which unites the
principal river of central Holland, the Lek, at Vianen by means of the
Linge with the Merwede at Gorkum. Amsterdam is connected with the Lek
and the Zederik canal via Utrecht by the Vecht and the Vaart Rhine
(1881-1893; depth 10.2 ft.). Again, a totally different character
belongs to the canals in North Brabant, and the east and north-east of
Holland where, in the absence of great rivers, they form the only
waterways which render possible the drainage of the fens and the
export of peat; and unite the lesser streams with each other. Thus in
Overysel, in addition to the canals already mentioned, the Dedemsvaart
connects the Vecht with the Zwarte Water near Hasselt; in Drente the
Smildervaart and Drentsche Hoofdvaart unites Assen with Meppel, and
receives on the eastern side the drainage canals of the Drente fens,
namely, the Orange canal and the Hoogeveen Vaart (1850-1860;
1880-1893). Groningen communicates with the Lauwers Zee by the
Reitdiep (1873-1876), while the canal to Winschoten and the
Stadskanaal, or State canal (1877-1880), bring it into connexion with
the flourishing fen colonies in the east of the province and in
Drente. In Friesland, finally, besides the ship canal from Harlingen
to the Lauwers Zee there are canals from Leeuwarden to the Lemmer,
whence there is a busy traffic with Amsterdam; and the Caspar Robles
or Kolonels Diep, and the Hoendiep connect it with Groningen.
Railways.
The construction of railways was long deferred and slowly
accomplished. The first line was that between Amsterdam and Haarlem,
opened in 1839 by the Holland railway company (_Hollandsch Yzeren
Spoorweg Maatschappij_). In 1845 the state undertook to develop the
railway system, and a company of private individuals was formed to
administer it under the title of the _Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van
Staatspoorwegen_. In 1860, however, the total length of railways was
only 208 m., and in that year a parliamentary bill embodying a
comprehensive scheme of construction was adopted. By 1872 this
programme was nearly completed, and 542 m. of new railway had been
added. In 1873 and 1875 a second and a third bill provided for the
extension of the railway system at the cost of the state, and, in
1876, 1882 and 1890 laws were introduced readjusting the control of
the various lines, some of which were transferred to the Holland
railway. The state railway system was completed in 1892, and since
that time the utmost that the state has done has been to subsidize new
undertakings. These include various local lines such as the line
Alkmaar-Hoorn (1898), Ede-Barneveld-Nykerk, Enschede-Ahaus in Germany
(1902), Leeuwarden to Franeker, Harlingen and Dokkum, and the line
Zwolle-Almelo (junction at Marienberg)
Koevorden-Stadskanal-Veendam-Delfzyl, connecting all the fen countries
on the eastern borders. The electric railway Amsterdam-Zandvoort was
opened in 1904. The frame upon which the whole network of the Dutch
railways may be said to depend is formed of two main lines from north
and south and four transverse lines from west to east. The two
longitudinal lines are the railway den Helder via Haarlem
(1862-1867),[4] Rotterdam (1839-1847), and Zwaluwe (1869-1877) to
Antwerp (1852-1855), belonging to the Holland railway company, and the
State railway from Leeuwarden and Groningen (1870) (junction at
Meppel, 1867) Zwolle (1866)--Arnhem (1865)--Nijmwegen (1879)--Venlo
(1883)--Maastricht (1865). The four transverse lines belong to the
State and Holland railways alternately and are, beginning with the
State railway: (1) the line Flushing (1872)--Rozendaal (1860)--Tilburg
(1863)--Bokstel (whence there is a branch line belonging to the North
Brabant and Germany railway company via Vechel to Goch in Germany,
opened in 1873)--Eindhoven--Venlo and across Prussian border (1866);
(2) the line Hook of Holland--Rotterdam (1893)--Dordrecht
(1872-1877)--Elst (1882-1885)--Nijmwegen (1879)--Cleves, Germany
(1865); (3) the line Rotterdam--Utrecht (1866-1869) and
Amsterdam--Utrecht--Arnhem (1843-1845) to Emmerich in Germany (1856):
this line formerly belonged to the Netherlands-Rhine railway company,
but was bought by the state in 1890; and finally (4) the line
Amsterdam--Hilversum--Amersfoort--Apeldoorn (1875), whence it is
continued (a) via Deventer, Almelo and Hengelo to Salzbergen, Germany
(1865); (b) via Zutphen, Hengelo (1865), Enschede (1866) to Gronau,
Germany; (c) via Zutphen (1876) and Ruurlo to Winterswyk (1878). Of
these (1) and (2) form the main transcontinental routes in connexion
with the steamboat service to England (ports of Queenborough and
Harwich respectively). Two other lines of railway, both belonging to
the state, also traverse the country west to east, namely, the line
Rozendaal--'s Hertogenbosch (1890)--Nijmwegen, and in the extreme
north, the line from Harlingen through Leeuwarden (1863) and Groningen
(1866) to the border at Nieuwe Schans (1869), whence it was connected
with the German railways in 1876. The northern and southern provinces
are further connected by the lines Amsterdam--Zaandam
(1878)--Enkhuizen (1885), whence there is a steam ferry across the
Zuider Zee to Stavoren, from where the railway is continued to
Leeuwarden (1883-1885); the Netherlands Central railway,
Utrecht--Amersfoort--Zwoole--Kampen (1863); and the line Utrecht--'s
Hertogenbosch (1868-1869) which is continued southward into Belgium by
the lines bought in 1898 from the Grand Central Beige railway, namely,
via Tilburg to Turnhout (1867), and via Eindhoven (1866) to Hasselt.
In 1892 Greenwich mean time was adopted on the railways and in the
post-offices, making a difference of twenty minutes with mean
Amsterdam time.
Tramways.
Since 1877 railway communication has been largely supplemented by
steam-tramways, which either run along the main roads or across the
country on special embankments, while one of them is carried across
the river Ysel at Doesburg on a pontoon bridge. The state first began
to encourage the construction of these local light railways by means
of subsidies in 1893, since when some of the most prominent lines have
come into existence, such as Purmerend--Alkmaar (1898),
Zutphen--Emmerich (1902), along the Dedemsvaart in Overysel (1902),
from 's Hertogenbosch via Utrecht and Eindhoven to Turnhout in Belgium
(1898), and especially those connecting the South Holland and Zeeland
islands with the railway, namely, between Rotterdam and Numansdorp on
the Hollandsch Diep (1898), and from Breda or Bergen-op-Zoom, via
Steenbergen to St Philipsland, Zierikzee and Brouwershaven (1900). An
electric tramway connects Haarlem and Zandvoort. The number of
passengers carried by the steam-tramways is relatively higher than
that of the railways. The value of the goods traffic is not so high,
owing, principally, to the want of intercommunication between the
various lines on account of differences in the width of the gauge.
_Agriculture._--Waste lands are chiefly composed of the barren stretches
of heaths found in Drente, Overysel, Gelderland and North Brabant. They
formerly served to support large flocks of sheep and some cattle, but
are gradually transformed by the planting of woods, as well as by
strenuous efforts at cultivation. Zeeland and Groningen are the two
principal agricultural provinces, and after them follow Limburg, North
Brabant, Gelderland and South Holland. The chief products of cultivation
on the heavy clay soil are oats, barley and wheat, and on the
sand-grounds rye, buckwheat and potatoes. Flax and beetroot are also
cultivated on the clay lands. Tobacco, hemp, hops, colza and chicory
form special cultures. With the possible exception of oats, the cereals
do not suffice for home consumption, and maize is imported in large
quantities for cattle-feeding, and barley for the distilleries and
breweries. Horticulture and market-gardening are of a high order, and
flourish especially on the low fen soil and _geest_ grounds along the
foot of the dunes in the provinces of North and South Holland. The
principal market products are cauliflower, cabbage, onions, asparagus,
gherkins, cucumbers, beans, peas, &c. The principal flowers are
hyacinths, tulips, crocuses, narcissus and other bulbous plants, the
total export of which is estimated at over L200,000. Fruit is everywhere
grown, and there is a special cultivation of grapes and figs in the
Westland of South Holland. The woods, or rather the plantations,
covering 6%, consist of (1) the so-called forest timber (_opgaandhout_;
Fr. _arbres de haute futaie_), including the beech, oak, elm, poplar,
birch, ash, willow and coniferous trees; and (2) the copse wood
(_akkermaal_ or _hakhout_), embracing the elder, willow, beech, oak, &c.
This forms no unimportant branch of the national wealth.
Livestock.
With nearly 35% of the total surface of the country under permanent
pasture, cattle-breeding forms one of the most characteristic
industries of the country. The provinces of Friesland, North and South
Holland, and Utrecht take the lead as regards both quality and
numbers. A smaller, hardier kind of cattle and large numbers of sheep
are kept upon the heath-lands in the eastern provinces, which also
favour the rearing of pigs and bee-culture. Horse-breeding is most
important in Friesland, which produces the well-known black breed of
horse commonly used in funeral processions. Goats are most numerous in
Gelderland and North Brabant. Poultry, especially fowls, are generally
kept. Stock-breeding, like agriculture, has considerably improved
under the care of the government (state and provincial), which grants
subsidies for breeding, irrigation of pasture-lands, the importation
of finer breeds of cattle and horses, the erection of factories for
dairy produce, schools, &c.
_Fisheries._--The fishing industry of the Netherlands may be said to
have been in existence already in the 13th century, and in the
following century received a considerable impetus from the discovery
how to cure herring by William Beukelszoon, a Zeeland fisherman. It
steadily declined during the 17th and 18th centuries, however, but
again began to revive in the last half of the 19th century. The
fisheries are commonly divided into four particular fishing areas,
namely, the "deep-sea" fishery of the North Sea, and the "inner"
(_binnengaatsch_) fisheries of the Wadden, the Zuider Zee, and the
South Holland and Zeeland waters. The deep-sea fishery may be farther
divided into the so-called "great" or "salt-herring" fishery, mainly
carried on from Vlaardingen and Maasluis during the summer and autumn,
and the "fresh-herring" fishery, chiefly pursued at Scheveningen,
Katwijk and Noordwijk. The value of the herring fisheries is enhanced
by the careful methods of smoking and salting, the export of salted
fish being considerable. In the winter the largest boats are laid up
and the remainder take to line-fishing. Middelharnis, Pernis and
Zwartewaal are the centres of this branch of fishery, which yields
halibut, cod, ling and haddock. The trawl fisheries of the coast yield
sole, plaice, turbot, brill, skate, &c., of which a large part is
brought alive to the market. In the Zuider Zee small herring, flat
fish, anchovies and shrimps are caught, the chief fishing centres
being the islands of Texel, Urk and Wieringen, and the coast towns of
Helder, Bunschoten, Huizen, Enkhuizen, Vollendam, Kampen, Harderwyk,
Vollenhove. The anchovy fishing which takes place in May, June and
July sometimes yields very productive results. Oysters and mussels are
obtained on the East Scheldt, and anchovies at Bergen-op-Zoom; while
salmon, perch and pike are caught in the Maas, the Lek and the New
Merwede. The oyster-beds and salmon fisheries are largely in the hands
of the state, which lets them to the highest bidder. Large quantities
of eels are caught in the Frisian lakes. The fisheries not only supply
the great local demand, but allow of large exports.
_Manufacturing Industries._--The mineral resources of Holland give no
encouragement to industrial activity, with the exception of the
coal-mining in Limburg, the smelting of iron ore in a few furnaces in
Overysel and Gelderland, the use of stone and gravel in the making of
dikes and roads, and of clay in brickworks and potteries, the quarrying
of stone at St Pietersberg, &c. Nevertheless the industry of the country
has developed in a remarkable manner since the separation from Belgium.
The greatest activity is shown in the cotton industry, which flourishes
especially in the Twente district of Overysel, where jute is also worked
into sacks. In the manufacture of woollen and linen goods Tilburg ranks
first, followed by Leiden, Utrecht and Eindhoven; that of half-woollens
is best developed at Roermond and Helmond. Other branches of industry
include carpet-weaving at Deventer, the distillation of brandy, gin and
liqueurs at Schiedam, Rotterdam and Amsterdam, and beer-brewing in most
of the principal towns; shoe-making and leather-tanning in the
Langstraat district of North Brabant; paper-making at Apeldoorn, on the
Zaan, and in Limburg; the manufacture of earthenware and faience at
Maastricht, the Hague and Delft, as well as at Utrecht, Purmerend and
Makkum; clay pipes and stearine candles at Gouda; margarine at Osch;
chocolate at Weesp and on the Zaan; mat-plaiting and broom-making at
Genemuiden and Blokzyl; diamond-cutting and the manufacture of quinine
at Amsterdam; and the making of cigars and snuff at Eindhoven,
Amsterdam, Utrecht, Kampen, &c. Shipbuilding is of no small importance
in Holland, not only in the greater, but also in the smaller towns along
the rivers and canals. The principal shipbuilding yards are at
Amsterdam, Kinderdijk, Rotterdam and at Flushing, where there is a
government dockyard for building warships.
_Trade and Shipping._--To obtain a correct idea of the trade of
Holland, greater attention than would be requisite in the case of
other countries must be paid to the inland traffic. It is impossible
to state the value of this in definite figures, but an estimate may be
formed of its extent from the number of ships which it employs in the
rivers and canals, and from the quantity of produce brought to the
public market. In connexion with this traffic there is a large fleet
of tug boats; but steam- or petroleum-propelled barges are becoming
more common. Some of the lighters used in the Rhine transport trade
have a capacity of 3000 tons. A great part of the commercial business
at Rotterdam belongs to the commission and transit trade. The other
principal ports are Flushing, Terneuzen (for Belgium), Harlingen,
Delfzyl, Dordrecht, Zaandam, Schiedam, Groningen, den Helder,
Middelburg, Vlaardingen. Among the national mail steamship services
are the lines to the East and West Indies, Africa and the United
States. An examination of its lists of exports and imports will show
that Holland receives from its colonies its spiceries, coffee, sugar,
tobacco, indigo, cinnamon; from England and Belgium its manufactured
goods and coals; petroleum, raw cotton and cereals from the United
States; grain from the Baltic provinces, Archangel, and the ports of
the Black Sea; timber from Norway and the basin of the Rhine, yarn
from England, wine from France, hops from Bavaria and Alsace; iron-ore
from Spain; while in its turn it sends its colonial wares to Germany,
its agricultural produce to the London market, its fish to Belgium and
Germany, and its cheese to France, Belgium and Hamburg, as well as
England. The bulk of trade is carried on with Germany and England;
then follow Java, Belgium, Russia, the United States, &c. In the last
half of the 19th century the total value of the foreign commerce was
more than trebled.
_Constitution and Government._--The government of the Netherlands is
regulated by the constitution of 1815, revised in 1848 and 1887, under
which the sovereign's person is inviolable and the ministers are
responsible. The age of majority of the sovereign is eighteen. The crown
is hereditary in both the male and the female line according to
primogeniture; but it is only in default of male heirs that females can
come to the throne. The crown prince or heir apparent is the first
subject of the sovereign, and bears the title of the prince of Orange.
The sovereign alone has executive authority. To him belong the ultimate
direction of foreign affairs, the power to declare war and peace, to
make treaties and alliances, and to dissolve one or both chambers of
parliament, the supreme command of the army and navy, the supreme
administration of the state finances and of the colonies and other
possessions of the kingdom, and the prerogative of mercy. By the
provisions of the same constitution he establishes the ministerial
departments, and shares the legislative power with the first and second
chambers of parliament, which constitute the states-general and sit at
the Hague. The heads of the departments to whom the especial executive
functions are entrusted are eight in number--ministers respectively of
the interior, of "water-staat," trade and industry (that is, of public
works, including railways, post-office, &c.), of justice, of finance, of
war, of marine, of the colonies and of foreign affairs. There is a
department of agriculture, but without a minister at its head. The heads
of departments are appointed and dismissed at the pleasure of the
sovereign, usually determined, however, as in all constitutional states,
by the will of the nation as indicated by its representatives.
The number of members in the first chamber is 50, South Holland sending
10, North Holland 9, North Brabant and Gelderland each 6, Friesland 4,
Overysel, Limburg and Groningen each 3, Zeeland, Utrecht and Drente each
2. According to the fundamental law (_Grondwet_) of 1887, they are
chosen by the provincial states, not only from amongst those who bear
the greatest burden of direct taxation in each province, but also from
amongst great functionaries and persons of high rank. Those deputies who
are not resident in the Hague are entitled to receive 16s. 8d. a day
during the session. The duration of parliament is nine years, a third of
the members retiring every three years. The retiring members are
eligible for re-election. The members of the second chamber are chosen
in the electoral districts by all capable male citizens not under 23
years of age, who pay one or more direct taxes, ranging from a minimum
of one guilder (1s. 8d.) towards the income tax. The number of members
is 100, Amsterdam returning 9, Rotterdam 5, the Hague 3, Groningen and
Utrecht 2 members each. Members must be at least thirty years old, and
receive an annual allowance of L166, besides travelling expenses. They
only, and the government, have the right of initiating business, and of
proposing amendments. Their term is four years, but they are
re-eligible. All communications from the sovereign to the states-general
and from the states to the sovereign, as well as all measures relating
to internal administration or to foreign possessions, are first
submitted to the consideration of the council of state, which consists
of 14 members appointed by the sovereign, who is the president. The
state council also has the right of making suggestions to the sovereign
in regard to subjects of legislation and administration.
The provincial administration is entrusted to the provincial states,
which are returned by direct election by the same electors as vote for
the second chamber. The term is for six years, but one-half of the
members retire every three years subject to re-election or renewal.
The president of the assembly is the royal commissioner for the
province. As the provincial states only meet a few times in the year,
they name a committee of deputy-states which manages current general
business, and at the same time exercises the right of control over the
affairs of the communes. At the head of every commune stands a
communal council, whose members must be not under 23 years of age.
They are elected for six years (one-third of the council retiring
every two years) by the same voters as for the provincial states.
Communal franchise is further restricted, however, to those electors
who pay a certain sum to the communal rates. The number of councillors
varies according to the population between 7 and 45. One of the
special duties of the council is the supervision of education. The
president of the communal council is the burgomaster, who is named by
the sovereign in every instance for six years, and receives a salary
varying from L40 to over L600. Provision is made for paying the
councillors a certain fee--called "presence-money"--when required.
The burgomaster has the power to suspend any of the council's decrees
for 30 days. The executive power is vested in a college formed by the
burgomaster and two, three or four magistrates (_wethouders_) to be
chosen by and from the members of the council. The provinces are
eleven in number.
_National Defence._--The home defence system of Holland is a militia
with strong cadres based on universal service. Service in the
"militia" or 1st line force is for 8 years, in the 2nd line for 7.
Every year in the drill season contingents of militiamen are called up
for long or short periods of training, and the maximum peace strength
under arms in the summer is about 35,000, of whom half are permanent
cadres and half militiamen. In 1908 12,300 of the year's contingent
were trained for eight months and more, and 5200 for four months. The
war strength of the militia is 105,000, that of the second line or
reserve 70,000. The defence of the country is based on the historic
principle of concentrating the people and their resources in the heart
of the country, covered by a wide belt of inundations. The chosen line
of defence is marked by a series of forts which control the sluices,
extending from Amsterdam, through Muiden, thence along the Vecht and
through Utrecht to Gorinchem (Gorkum) on the Waal. The line continues
thence by the Hollandsche Diep and Volkerak to the sea, and the coast
also is fortified. The army in the colonies numbers in all about
26,000, all permanent troops and for the most part voluntarily
enlisted European regulars. The military expenditure in 1908 was
L2,331,255. The Dutch navy at home and in Indian waters consists
(1909) of 9 small battleships, 6 small cruisers and 80 other vessels,
manned by 8600 officers and men of the navy and about 2250 marines.
Recruiting is by voluntary enlistment, with contingent powers of
conscription amongst the maritime population.
_Justice._--The administration of justice is entrusted (1) to the high
council (_hooge raad_) at the Hague, the supreme court of the whole
kingdom, and the tribunal for all high government officials and for
the members of the states-general; (2) to the five courts of justice
established at Amsterdam, the Hague, Arnhem, Leeuwarden and 's
Hertogenbosch; (3) to tribunals established in each arrondissement;
(4) to cantonal judges appointed over a group of communes, whose
jurisdiction is restricted to claims of small amount (under 200
guilders), and to breaches of police regulations, and who at the same
time look after the interest of minors. The high council is composed
of 12 to 14 councillors, a procureur-general and three
advocates-general. Criminal and correctional procedure were formerly
divided between the courts of justice and the arrondissement
tribunals; but this distinction was suppressed by the penal code of
1886, thereby increasing the importance of the arrondissement courts,
which also act as court of appeal of the cantonal courts.
Besides the prisons, which include one built on the cellular principle
at Breda, the state supports three penal workhouses for drunkards and
beggars. There are also the penal colonies at Veenhuizen in Drente,
which were brought from the Society of Charity (_Maatschappij van
Weldadigkeid_) in 1859. The inmates practise agriculture, as well as
various industries for supplying all the requirements of the colony.
The objection raised against these establishments is that the
prisoners do not represent the real vagabondage of the country, but a
class of more or less voluntary inmates. Children under 16 years of
age are placed in the three state reformatories, and there is an
institution for vagabond women at Rotterdam.
_Charitable and other Institutions._--Private charities have always
occupied a distinguished position in the Netherlands, and the
principle of the law of 1854 concerning the relief of the poor is,
that the state shall only interfere when private charity fails. All
private and religious institutions have to be inscribed before they
can collect public funds. In some cases these institutions are
organized and administered conjointly with the civil authorities. At
the head of the charitable institutions stand the agricultural
colonies belonging to the Society of Charity (see DRENTE). Of the
numerous institutions for the encouragement of the sciences and the
fine arts, the following are strictly national--the Royal Academy of
Sciences (1855), the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute
(1854), the National Academy of the Plastic Arts, the Royal School of
Music, the National Archives, besides various other national
collections and museums. Provincial scientific societies exist at
Middelburg, Utrecht, 's Hertogenbosch and Leeuwarden, and there are
private and municipal associations, institutions and collections in a
large number of the smaller towns. Among societies of general utility
are the Society for Public Welfare (_Maatschappij tot nut van't
algemeen_, 1785), whose efforts have been mainly in the direction of
educational reform; the Geographical Society at Amsterdam (1873);
Teyler's Stichting or foundation at Haarlem (1778), and the societies
for the promotion of industry (1777), and of sciences (1752) in the
same town; the Institute of Languages, Geography and Ethnology of the
Dutch Indies (1851), and the Indian Society at the Hague, the Royal
Institute of Engineers at Delft (1848), the Association for the
Encouragement of Music at Amsterdam, &c.
_Religion._--Religious conviction is one of the most characteristic
traits of the Dutch people, and finds expression in a large number of
independent religious congregations. The bond between church and
state which had been established by the synod of Dort (1618) and the
organization of the Low-Dutch Reformed Church (_Nederlandsche
Hervormde Kerk_) as the national Protestant church, practically came
to an end in the revolution of 1795, and in the revision of the
Constitution in 1848 the complete religious liberty and equality of
all persons and congregations was guaranteed. The present organization
of the Reformed Church dates from 1852. It is governed by a general
assembly or "synod" of deputies from the principal judicatures,
sitting once a year. The provinces are subdivided into "classes," and
the classes again into "circles" (_ringen_), each circle comprising
from 5 to 25 congregations, and each congregation being governed by a
"church council" or session. The provincial synods are composed of
ministers and elders deputed by the classes; and these are composed of
the ministers belonging to the particular class and an equal number of
elders appointed by the local sessions. The meetings of the circles
have no administrative character, but are mere brotherly conferences.
The financial management in each congregation is entrusted to a
special court (_kerk-voogdij_) composed of "notables" and church
wardens. In every province there is besides, in the case of the
Reformed Church, a provincial committee of supervision for the
ecclesiastical administration. For the whole kingdom this supervision
is entrusted to a common "collegium" or committee of supervision,
which meets at the Hague, and consists of 11 members named by the
provincial committee and 3 named by the synod. Some congregations have
withdrawn from provincial supervision, and have thus free control of
their own financial affairs. The oldest secession from the Orthodox
Church is that of the Remonstrants, who still represent the most
liberal thought in the country, and have their own training college at
Leiden. Towards 1840 a new congregation calling itself the Christian
Reformed Church (_Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerk_) arose as a protest
against the government and the modern tendencies of the Reformed
Church; and for the same reason those who had founded the Free
University of Amsterdam (1880) formed themselves in 1886 into an
independent body called the _Nederlandsche Gereformeerde Kerk_. In
1892 these two churches united under the name of the Reformed Churches
(_Gereformeerde Kerken_) with the doctrine and discipline of Dort.
They have a theological seminary at Kampen. Other Protestant bodies
are the Walloons, who, though possessing an independent church
government, are attached to the Low-Dutch Reformed Church; the
Lutherans, divided into the main body of Evangelical Lutherans and a
smaller division calling themselves the Re-established or Old
Lutherans (_Herstelde Lutherschen_) who separated in 1791 in order to
keep more strictly to the Augsburg confession; the Mennonites founded
by Menno Simons of Friesland, about the beginning of the 16th century;
the Baptists, whose only central authority is the General Baptist
Society founded at Amsterdam in 1811; the Evangelical Brotherhood of
Hernhutters or Moravians, who have churches and schools at Zeist and
Haarlem; and a Catholic Apostolic Church (1867) at the Hague. There
are congregations of English Episcopalians at the Hague, Amsterdam and
Rotterdam, and German Evangelicals at the Hague (1857) and Rotterdam
(1861). In 1853 the Roman Catholic Church, which before had been a
mission in the hands of papal legates and vicars, was raised into an
independent ecclesiastical province with five dioceses, namely, the
archbishopric of Utrecht, and the suffragan bishoprics of Haarlem,
Breda, 's Hertogenbosch and Roermond, each with its own seminary. Side
by side with the Roman Catholic hierarchy are the congregations of the
Old Catholics or Old Episcopalian Church (_Oud Bisschoppelijke
Clerezie_), and the Jansenists (see JANSENISM). The Old Catholics,
with whom the Jansenists are frequently confused, date from the 17th
century. Besides an archbishop at Utrecht, the Old Catholics have
bishops at Deventer and Haarlem, and a training college at Amersfoort.
They numbered in 1905 about 9000 (see UTRECHT). The large Jewish
population in Holland had its origin in the wholesale influx of
Portuguese Jews at the end of the 16th, and of German Jews in the
beginning of the 17th century. In 1870 they were reorganized under the
central authority of the Netherlands Israelite Church, and divided
into head and "ring" synagogues and associated churches. The Roman
Catholic element preponderates in the southern provinces of Limburg,
and North Brabant, but in Friesland, Groningen and Drente the Baptists
and Christian Reformed are most numerous.
_Education._--Every grade of education in the Netherlands is under the
control and supervision of the state, being administered by a special
department under the ministry for the interior. In 1889 the state
recognized private denominational schools, and in 1900 passed a law of
compulsory attendance. Infant schools, which are generally in the
hands of private societies or the municipal authorities, are not
interfered with by the state. According to the law of 1889 primary
education is carried on in the ordinary and in continuation schools
for boys and girls (co-education having been long in vogue). These
schools are established in every commune, the state contributing aid
at the rate of 25% of the total expenditure. The age of admission is
six; and the course is for six years, 7-13 being the legal age limits;
the fee, from which poverty exempts, is almost nominal. Nature-study,
continued in the secondary schools, is an essential part in the
curriculum of these schools, and elementary general history, English,
French and German are among the optional subjects. While the boys are
instructed in woodwork, needlework is taught to the girls, its
introduction in 1889 having been the first recognition of practical
instruction in any form. Continuation schools (_herhalingsscholen_)
must be organized wherever required, and are generally open for six
months in winter, pupils of twelve to fourteen or sixteen attending.
Secondary schools were established by the law of 1863 and must be
provided by every commune of 10,000 inhabitants; they comprise the
Burgher-Day-and-Evening schools and the Higher-Burgher schools. The
first named schools being mainly intended for those engaged in
industrial or agricultural pursuits, the day classes gradually fell
into disuse. The length of the course as prescribed by law is two
years, but it is usually extended to three or four years, and the
instruction, though mainly theoretical, has regard to the special
local industries; the fees, if any, may not exceed one pound sterling
per annum. Special mention must be made in this connexion of the
school of engineering in Amsterdam (1878) and the Academy of Plastic
Arts at Rotterdam. The higher-burgher schools have either a three or a
five years' course, and the fees vary from L2, 10s. to L5 a year. The
instruction given is essentially non-classical and scientific. In both
schools certificates are awarded at the end of the course, that of the
higher-burgher schools admitting to the natural science and medical
branches of university education, a supplementary examination in Greek
and Latin being required for other branches. The gymnasia, or
classical schools, fall legally speaking under the head of higher
education. By the law of 1876, every town of 20,000 inhabitants,
unless specially exempted, must provide a gymnasium. A large
proportion of these schools are subsidized by the state to the extent
of half their net cost. The curriculum is classical and philological,
but in the two upper classes there is a bifurcation in favour of
scientific subjects for those who wish. The fees vary from L5 to L8 a
year, but, owing to the absence of scholarships and bursaries, are
sometimes remitted, as in the case of the higher-burgher schools.
Among the schools which give specialized instruction, mention must be
made of the admirable trade schools (_ambachtsscholen_) established in
1861, and the corresponding industrial schools for girls; the fishery
schools and schools of navigation; the many private schools of
domestic science, and of commerce and industry, among which the
municipal school at Enschede (1886) deserves special mention; and the
school of social work, "Das Huis," at Amsterdam (1900). For the
education of medical practitioners, civil and military, the more
important institutions are the National Obstetrical College at
Amsterdam, the National Veterinary School at Utrecht, the National
College for Military Physicians at Amsterdam and the establishment at
Utrecht for the training of military apothecaries for the East and
West Indies. The organization of agricultural education under the
state is very complete, and includes a state professor of agriculture
for every province (as well as professors of horticulture in several
cases), "winter schools" of agriculture and horticulture, and a state
agricultural college at Wageningen (1876) with courses in home and
colonial agriculture. The total fees at this college, including board
and lodging, are about L50 a year. According to the law of 1898, the
state also maintains or subsidizes experimental or testing-stations.
Other schools of the same class are the Gerard Adriaan van Swieten
schools of agriculture, gardening and forestry in Drente, the school
of instruction in butter and cheese making (_zuivelbereiding_) at
Bolsward and the state veterinary college at Utrecht.
There are three state universities in Holland, namely, Leiden (1575),
Groningen (1585) and Utrecht (1634). The ancient athenaeums of
Franeker (1585) and Harderwyk (1603) were closed in 1811, but that of
Amsterdam was converted into a municipal university in 1877. In each
of these universities there are five faculties, namely, law, theology,
medicine, science and mathematics, and literature and philosophy, the
courses for which are respectively four, five, eight, and six or seven
years for the two last named. The fees amount to 200 florins (L16,
13s. 4d.) per annum and are payable for four years. Two kinds of
degrees are conferred, namely, the ordinary (_candidaats_) and the
"doctor's" degrees. Pupils from the higher-burgher schools are only
eligible for the first. There is also a free (Calvinistic) university
at Amsterdam founded in 1880 and enjoying, since 1905, the right of
conferring degrees. It has, however, no faculties of law or science.
The state polytechnic school at Delft (1864) for the study of
engineering in all its branches, architecture and naval construction,
has a nominal course of four years, and confers the degree of
"engineer." The fees are the same as those of the universities, and as
at the universities there are bursaries. A national institution at
Leiden for the study of languages, geography and ethnology of the
Dutch Indies has given place to communal institutions of the same
nature at Delft and at Leiden, founded in 1864 and 1877. The centre of
Dutch university life, which is non-residential, is the students'
corps, at the head of which is a "senate," elected annually from among
the students of four years' standing. Membership of the corps is
gained after a somewhat trying novitiate, but is the only passport to
the various social and sports societies.
All teachers in the Netherlands must qualify for their profession by
examination. Under the act of 1898 they are trained either in the
state training-colleges, or in state-aided municipal, and private
denominational colleges; or else by means of state or private
state-aided courses of instruction. The age of admission to this class
of training is from 14 to 18, and the course is for four years. In the
last year practice in teaching is obtained at the primary "practice"
school attached to each college, and students are also taught to make
models explanatory of the various subjects of instruction after the
manner of the Swedish Sloyd (Slojd) system. Assistant-teachers wishing
to qualify as head-teachers must have had two years' practical
experience. Pupil-teachers can only give instruction under the
supervision of a certificated teacher. The minimum salary of teachers
is determined by law. The teaching, which follows the so-called
"Heuristic" method, and the equipment of schools of every description,
are admirable.
_Finance._--The following statement shows the revenue and expenditure
of the kingdom for the years 1889, 1900-1901 and 1905:--
_Revenue._
+-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Source. | 1889. | 1901. | 1905. |
+-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | L | L | L |
| Excise | 3,678,075 | 4,042,500 | 4,514,998 |
| Direct taxation | 2,300,865 | 2,900,175 | 3,135,665 |
| Indirect taxation | 2,004,745 | 1,805,583 | 1,946,666 |
| Post Office | 539,405 | 865,750 | 1,103,333 |
| Government telegraphs | 106,970 | 187,375 | 211,333 |
| Export and Import duties| 440,247 | 801,500 | 930,912 |
| State domains | 213,186 | 147,000 | 139,000 |
| Pilot dues | 106,079 | 191,667 | 200,000 |
| State lotteries | 54,609 | 54,250 | 52,666 |
| Game and Fisheries | 11,660 | 11,000 | 11,750 |
| Railways | .. | 361,512 | 349,011 |
| Part paid by East Indies| | | |
| on account of interest | | | |
| and redemption of | | | |
| public debt | .. | .. | 321,916 |
| Netherland Bank | | | |
| contribution | .. | .. | 160,500 |
+-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Total* | 9,475,337 |11,394,220 |14,017,079 |
+-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
* Including various miscellaneous items not specified in detail.
_Expenditure._
+-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Object. | 1889. | 1901. | 1905. |
+-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | L | L | L |
| National Debt | 2,727,591 | 2,906,214 | 2,899,770 |
| Department of War | 1,708,698 | 1,893,036 | 2,474,011 |
| " Waterstaat| 1,790,291 | 2,448,339 | 2,869,951 |
| " Finance | 1,537,404 | 2,092,343 | 2,297,180 |
| " Marine | 1,038,536 | 1,388,141 | 1,396,137 |
| " Interior | 815,188 | 1,330,563 | 1,613,134 |
| " Justice | 426,343 | 529,159 | 592,073 |
| " Colonies | 93,829 | 109,768 | 251,150 |
| Dept. of Foreign Affairs| 57,312 | 71,101 | 82,403 |
| Royal Household | 54,166 | 66,667 | 66,666 |
| Superior Authorities of | | | |
| the State | 52,476 | 56,792 | 58,251 |
| Unforeseen Expenditure | 1,745 | 4,166 | 4,166 |
+-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Total* |10,393,579 |12,896,289 |14,907,781 |
+-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
* Including, besides the ordinary budget, the outlays in payment
of annuities, in funding and discharging debt, in railway
extension, &c.
The total debt in 1905 amounted to L96,764,266, the annual interest
amounted to L3,396,590. During the years 1850-1905, L27,416,651 has
been devoted to the redemption of the public debt. The total wealth of
the kingdom is estimated at 900 millions sterling. The various
provinces and communes have separate budgets. The following table
gives a statement of the provincial and communal finances:--
_Revenue._
+---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | 1889. | 1900. | 1905. |
+---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | L | L | L |
| Provincial | 722,583 | 445,333 | 718,199 |
| Communal | 6,132,000 | 9,311,666 |12,750,083 |
+---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
_Expenditure._
+---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | 1889. | 1900. | 1905. |
+---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | L | L | L |
| Provincial | 740,333 | 445,333 | 702,718 |
| Communal | 5,683,800 | 8,503,250 |12,085,250 |
+---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
_Colonies._--The Dutch colonies in the Malay Archipelago have an area of
600,000 sq. m., with a population of 23,000,000, among which are 35,000
Europeans, 319,000 Chinese, 15,000 Arabs, and 10,000 other immigrant
Asiatics. The West Indian possessions of Holland include Dutch Guiana or
the government of Surinam, and the Dutch Antilles or the government of
Curacoa and its dependencies (St Eustatius, Saba, the southern half of
St Martin, Curacoa, Bonaire and Aruba), a total area of 60,000 sq. m.,
with 90,000 inhabitants, of whom a small portion are Europeans, and the
rest negroes and other people of colour, and Chinese.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The chief place is due to the following geographical
publications:--Dr H. Blink, _Nederland en zijne Bewoners_ (Amsterdam,
1888-1892), containing a copious bibliography; _Tegenwoordige Staat
van Nederland_ (Amsterdam, 1897); R. Schuiling, _Aardrijkskunde van
Nederland_ (Zwolle, 1884); A. A. Beekman, _De Strijd om het Bestaan_
(Zutphen, 1887), a manual on the characteristic hydrography of the
Netherlands; and E. Reclus' _Nouvelle geographie universelle_ (1879;
vol. iv.). The _Gedenboek uitgeven ter gelegenheid van het
fijftig-jarig bestaan van het Koninklijk Instituut van Ingenieurs_,
1847-1897 ('s Gravenhage, 1898), is an excellent aid in studying
technically the remarkable works on Dutch rivers, canals, sluices,
railways and harbours, and drainage and irrigation works. The
_Aardrijkskundig Woordenboek van Nederland_, by P. H. Witkamp (Arnhem,
1895), is a complete gazetteer with historical notes, and _Nomina
Geographica Neerlandica_, published by the Netherlands Geographical
Society (Amsterdam, 1885, &c.), contains a history of geographical
names. _Geschiedenis van den Boereastand en den landbouw in
Nederland_, H. Blink (Groningen, 1902), and the report on agriculture,
published at the Hague by the Royal Commission appointed in 1896,
furnish special information in connexion with this subject. Of more
general interest are: _Eene halve Eeuw, 1848-1898_, edited by Dr P. H.
Ritter (Amsterdam, 1898), containing a series of articles on all
subjects connected with the kingdom during the second half of the 19th
century, written by specialists; and _Les Pays Bas_ (Leiden, 1899),
and _La Hollande geographique, ethnologique, politique, &c._ (Paris,
1900), both works of the same class as the preceding.
Books of travel include some of considerable topographical as well as
literary interest, from Lodovico Guicciardini (1567) down to Edmondo
de Amicis (_Holland_, translated from the Italian, London, 1883); H.
Havard, _Dead Cities of the Zuider Zee, &c._ (translated from the
French, London 1876), and D. S. Meldrum, _Holland and the Hollanders_
(London, 1899) in the 19th century. Mention may also be made of _Old
Dutch Towns and Villages of the Zuider Zee_, by W. J. Tuyn (translated
from the Dutch, London, 1901), _Nieuwe Wandelingen door Nederland_, by
J. Craandijk and P. A. Schipperus (Haarlem, 1888); _Friesland Meres
and through the Netherlands_, by H. M. Doughty (London, 1887); _On
Dutch Waterways_, by G. C. Davis (London, 1887); _Hollande et
hollandais_, by H. Durand (Paris, 1893); and _Holland and Belgium_ by
Professor N. G. van Kampen (translated from the Dutch, London, 1860),
the last three being chiefly remarkable for their fine illustrations.
Works of historical and antiquarian interest of a high order are
_Merkwaardige Kasteelen in Nederland_, by J. van Lennep and W. J.
Hofdyk (Leiden, 1881-1884); _Noord-Hollandsche Oudheden_, by G. van
Arkel and A. W. Weisman, published by the Royal Antiquarian Society
(Amsterdam, 1891); and _Oud Holland_, edited by A. D. de Vries and N.
de Roever (Amsterdam, 1883-1886), containing miscellaneous
contributions to the history of ancient Dutch art, crafts and letters.
Natural history is covered by various periodical publications of the
Royal Zoological Society "Natura Artis Magistra" at Amsterdam, and the
_Natuurlijke Historie van Nederland_ (Haarlem, 1856-1863) written by
specialists, and including ethnology and flora. Military and naval
defence may be studied in _De vesting Holland_, by A. L. W. Seijffardt
(Utrecht, 1887), and the _Handbook of the Dutch Army_, by Major W. L.
White, R.A. (London, 1896); ecclesiastical history in _The Church in
the Netherlands_, by P. H. Ditchfield (London, 1893); and education in
vol. viii. of the _Special Reports on Educational Subjects_ issued by
the Board of Education, London. Statistics are furnished by the annual
publication of the Society for Statistics in the Netherlands,
Amsterdam.