FOOTNOTES:

[1] The translation, under the title _Eight Books of the

Peloponnesian War, written by Thucydides the son of Olorus,

interpreted with faith and diligence immediately out of the Greek by

Thomas Hobbes, secretary to the late Earl of Devonshire_, appeared in

1628 (or 1629), after the death of the earl, to whom touching

reference is made in the dedication. It reappeared in 1634, with the

date of the dedication altered, as if then newly written. Though

Hobbes claims to have performed his work "with much more diligence

than elegance," his version is remarkable as a piece of English

writing, but is by no means accurate. It fills vols. viii. and ix. in

Molesworth's collection (11 vols., including index vol.) of Hobbes's

_English Works_ (London, Bohn, 1839-1845). The volumes of this

collection will here be cited as E. W. Molesworth's collection of the

Latin _Opera philosophica_ (5 vols., 1839-1845) will be cited as

_L.W._ The five hundred and odd Latin hexameters under the title _De

mirabilibus Pecci_ (_L.W._ v. 323-340), giving an account of a short

excursion from Chatsworth to view the seven wonders of the Derbyshire

Peak, were written before 1628 (in 1626 or 1627), though not

published till 1636. It was a New Year's present to his patron, who

gave him L5 in return. A later edition, in 1678, included an English

version by another hand.

[2] Hobbes, in minor works dealing with physical questions (L.W. iv.

316; _E.W._ vii. 112), makes two incidental references to Bacon's

writings, but never mentions Bacon as he mentions Galileo, Kepler,

Harvey, and others (_De corpore_, ep. ded.), among the lights of the

century. The word "Induction," which occurs in only three or four

passages throughout all his works (and these again minor ones), is

never used by him with the faintest reminiscence of the import

assigned to it by Bacon; and, as will be seen, he had nothing but

scorn for experimental work in physics.

[3] The free English abstract of Aristotle's _Rhetoric_, published in

1681, after Hobbes's death, as _The Whole Art of Rhetoric_ (_E.W._

vi. 423-510), corresponds with a Latin version dictated to his young

pupil. Among Hobbes's papers preserved at Hardwick, where he died,

there remains the boy's dictation-book, interspersed with headings,

examples, &c. in Hobbes's hand.

[4] Among the Hardwick papers there is preserved a MS. copy of the

work, under the title _Elementes of Law Naturall and Politique_, with

the dedication to the earl of Newcastle, written in Hobbes's own

hand, and dated May 9, 1640. This dedication was prefixed to the

first thirteen chapters of the work when printed by themselves, under

the title _Human Nature_ in 1650.

[5] The book, of which the copies are rare (one in Dr Williams's

library in London and one in the Bodleian), was printed in quarto

size (Paris, 1642), with a pictorial title-page (not afterwards

reproduced) of scenes and figures illustrating its three divisions,

"Libertas," "Imperium," "Religio." The title _Elementorum

philosophiae sectio tertia, De Cive_, expresses its relation to the

unwritten sections, which also comes out in one or two

back-references in the text.

[6] _L.W._ ii. 133-134. In this first public edition (12mo), the

title was changed to _Elementa philosophica de cive_, the references

in the text to the previous sections being omitted. The date of the

dedication to the young earl of Devonshire was altered from 1641 to

1646.

[7] Described as "nobilis Languedocianus" in _Vit._; doubtless the

same with the "Dominus Verdusius, nobilis Aquitanus," to whom was

dedicated the _Exam. et emend. math. hod._ (_L.W._ iv.) in 1660. Du

Verdus was one of Hobbes's profoundest admirers and most frequent

correspondents in later years; there are many of his letters among

Hobbes's papers at Hardwick.

[8] _The Human Nature_ corresponds with cc. i.-xiii. of the first

part of the original treatise. The remaining six chapters of the part

stand now as Part I. of the _De Corpore Politico_. Part II. of the

_D.C.P._ corresponds with the original second part of the whole work.

[9] At the beginning of this year he wrote and published in Paris a

letter on the nature and conditions of poetry, chiefly epic, in

answer to an appeal to his judgment made in the preface to Sir W.

Davenant's heroic poem, _Gondibert_ (_E.W._ iv. 441-458). The letter

is dated Jan. 10, 1650 (1650/1).

[10] This presentation copy, so described by Clarendon (_Survey of

the Leviathan_, 1676, p. 8), is doubtless the beautifully written and

finely bound MS. now to be found in the British Museum (Egerton MSS.

1910).

[11] During all the time he was abroad he had continued to receive

from his patron a yearly pension of L80, and they remained in steady,

correspondence. The earl, having sided with the king in 1642, was

declared unfit to sit in the House of Peers, and though, by

submission to Parliament, he recovered his estates when they were

sequestered later on, he did not sit again till 1660. Among Hobbes's

friends at this time are specially mentioned John Selden and William

Harvey, who left him a legacy of L10. According to Aubrey, Selden

left him an equal bequest, but this seems to be a mistake. Harvey

(not Bacon) is the only Englishman he mentions in the dedicatory

epistle prefixed to the _De corpore_, among the founders, before

himself, of the new natural philosophy.

[12] The treatise bore the date, "Rouen, Aug. 20, 1652," but it

should have been 1646, as afterwards explained by Hobbes himself

(_E.W._ v. 25).

[13] "The _Vit. auct._ refers to 1676, a 'Letter to William duke of

Newcastle on the Controversy about Liberty and Necessity, held with

Benjamin Laney, bishop of Ely.' In that year there did appear a

(confused) little tract written by Laney against Hobbes's concluding

statement of his own 'Opinion' in the 'Liberty and Necessity' of 1654

(1646), but I can find no trace of any further writing by Hobbes on

the subject" (G. Croom Robertson, _Hobbes_, p. 202).

[14] This translation, _Concerning Body_, though not made by Hobbes,

was revised by him; but it is far from accurate, and not seldom, at

critical places (e.g. c. vi. S 2), quite misleading. Philosophical

citations from the _De corpore_ should always be made in the original

Latin. Molesworth reprints the Latin, not from the first edition of

1655, but from the modified edition of 1668--modified, in the

mathematical chapters, in general (not exact) keeping with the

English edition of 1656. The Vindex episode, referred to in the _Six

Lessons_, becomes intelligible only by going beyond Molesworth to the

original Latin edition of 1655.

[15] They were composed originally, in a somewhat different and

rather more extended form, as the second part of an English treatise

on Optics, completed by the year 1646. Of this treatise, preserved in

Harleian MSS. 3360, Molesworth otherwise prints the dedication to the

marquis of Newcastle, and the concluding paragraphs (_E.W._ vii.

467-471).

[16] _L.W._ iv. 1-232. The propositions on the circle, forty-six in

number (shattered by Wallis in 1662), were omitted by Hobbes when he

republished the _Dialogues_ in 1668, in the collected edition of his

Latin works from which Molesworth reprints. In the part omitted, at

p. 154 of the original edition, Hobbes refers to his first

introduction to Euclid, in a way that confirms the story in Aubrey

quoted in an earlier paragraph.

[17] Remaining at Oxford, Wallis, in fact, took no active part in the

constitution of the new society, but he had been, from 1645, one of

the originators of an earlier association in London, thus continued

or revived. This earlier society had been continued also at Oxford

after the year 1649, when Wallis and others of its members received

appointments there.

[18] The _Problemata physica_ was at the same time put into English

(with some changes and omission of part of the mathematical

appendix), and presented to the king, to whom the work was dedicated

in a remarkable letter apologizing for _Leviathan_. In its English

form, as _Seven Philosophical Problems and Two Propositions of

Geometry_ (_E.W._ vii. 1-68), the work was first published in 1682,

after Hobbes's death.

[19] Wallis's pieces were excluded from the collected edition of his

works (1693-1697), and have become extremely rare.

[20] The De medio animarum statu of Thomas White, a heterodox

Catholic priest, who contested the natural immortality of the soul.

White (who died 1676) and Hobbes were friends.

[21] _E.W._ vi. 161-418. Though _Behemoth_ was kept back at the

king's express desire, it saw the light, without Hobbes's leave, in

1679, before his death.

HOBBY, a small horse, probably from early quotations, of Irish breed,

trained to an easy gait so that riding was not fatiguing. The common use

of the word is for a favourite pursuit or occupation, with the idea

either of excessive devotion or of absence of ulterior motive or of

profit, &c., outside the occupation itself. This use is probably not

derived from the easy ambling gait of the Irish "hobby," but from the

"hobby-horse," the mock horse of the old morris-dances, made of a

painted wooden horse's head and tail, with a framework casing for an

actor's body, his legs being covered by a cloth made to represent the

"housings" of the medieval tilting-horse. A hobby or hobby-horse is thus

a toy, a diversion. The O. Fr. _hobin_, or _hobi_, Mod. _aubin_, and

Ital. _ubina_ are probably adaptations of the English, according to the

_New English Dictionary_. The O. Fr. hober, to move, which is often

taken to be the origin of all these words, is the source of a use of

"hobby" for a small kind of falcon, _falco subbuteo_, used in hawking.

HOBHOUSE, ARTHUR HOBHOUSE, 1ST BARON (1819-1904), English judge, fourth

son of Henry Hobhouse, permanent under-secretary of state in the Home

Office, was born at Hadspen, Somerset, on the 10th of November 1819.

Educated at Eton and Balliol, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn

in 1845, and rapidly acquired a large practice as a conveyancer and

equity draftsman; he became Q.C. in 1862, and practised in the Rolls

Court, retiring in 1866. He was an active member of the charity

commission and urged the appropriation of pious bequests to educational

and other purposes. In 1872 he began a five years' term of service as

legal member of the council of the governor-general of India, his

services being acknowledged by a K.C.S.I.; and in 1881 he was appointed

a member of the judicial committee of the privy council, on which he

served for twenty years. He was made a peer in 1885, and consistently

supported the Liberal party in the House of Lords. He died on the 6th of

December 1904, leaving no heir to the barony.

His papers read before the Social Science Association on the subject

of property were collected in 1880 under the title of _The Dead Hand_.

HOBOKEN, a small town of Belgium on the right bank of the Scheldt about

4 m. above Antwerp. It is only important on account of the shipbuilding

yard which the Cockerill firm of Seraing has established at Hoboken.

Many wealthy Antwerp merchants have villas here, and it is the

headquarters of several of the leading rowing clubs on the Scheldt. Pop.

(1904) 12,816.

HOBOKEN, a city of Hudson county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Hudson

river, adjoining Jersey City on the S. and W. and opposite New York

city, with which it is connected by ferries and by two subway lines

through tunnels under the river. Pop. (1890) 43,648; (1900) 59,364, of

whom 21,380 were foreign-born, 10,843 being natives of Germany; (1910

census) 70,324. Of the total population in 1900, 48,349 had either one

or both parents foreign-born, German being the principal racial element.

The city is served by the West Shore, and the Delaware, Lackawanna &

Western railways, being the eastern terminus of the latter, and is

connected by electric railway with the neighbouring cities of

north-eastern New Jersey. In Hoboken are the piers of the North German

Lloyd, the Hamburg American, the Netherlands American, the Scandinavian

and the Phoenix steamship lines. Hoboken occupies a little more than 1

sq. m. and lies near the foot of the New Jersey Palisades, which rise

both on the W. and N. to a height of nearly 200 ft. Much of its surface

has had to be filled in to raise it above high tide, but Castle Point,

in the N.E., rises from the generally low level about 100 ft. On this

Point are the residence and private estate of the founder of the city,

John Stevens (1749-1838), Hudson Park, and facing it the Stevens

Institute of Technology, an excellent school of mechanical engineering

endowed by Edwin A. Stevens (1795-1868), son of John Stevens, opened in

1871, and having in 1909-1910 34 instructors and 390 students. The

institute owes much to its first president, Henry Morton (1836-1902), a

distinguished scientist, whose aim was "to offer a course of instruction

in which theory and practice were carefully balanced and thoroughly

combined," and who gave to the institute sums aggregating $175,000 (see

_Morton Memorial, History of Stevens Institute_, ed. by Furman, 1905).

In connexion with the institute there is a preparatory department, the

Stevens School (1870). The city maintains a teachers' training school.

Among the city's prominent buildings are the Delaware, Lackawanna &

Western station, the Hoboken Academy (1860), founded by German

Americans, and the public library. The city has an extensive coal trade

and numerous manufactures, among which are lead pencils, leather goods,

silk goods, wall-paper and caskets. The value of the manufactured

product increased from $7,151,391 in 1890 to $12,092,872 in 1900, or

69.1%. The factory product in 1905 was valued at $14,077,305, an

increase of 34.3% over that for 1900. The site of Hoboken (originally

"Hobocanhackingh," the place of the tobacco pipe) was occupied about

1640 as a Dutch farm, but in 1643 the stock and all the buildings except

a brew-house were destroyed by the Indians. In 1711 title to the place

was acquired by Samuel Bayard, a New York merchant, who built on Castle

Point his summer residence. During the War of Independence his

descendant, William Bayard, was a loyalist, and his home was burned and

his estate confiscated. In 1784 the property was purchased by John

Stevens, the inventor, who in 1804 laid it out as a town. For the next

thirty-five years its "Elysian Fields" were a famous pleasure resort of

New York City. Hoboken was incorporated as a town in 1849 and as a city

in 1855. On the 30th of June 1900 the wharves of the North German Lloyd

Steamship Company and three of its ocean liners were almost completely

destroyed by a fire, which caused a loss of more than 200 lives and over

$5,000,000.

HOBSON'S CHOICE, i.e. "this or nothing," an expression that arose from

the fact that the Cambridge-London carrier, Thomas Hobson (1544-1630),

refused, when letting his horses on hire, to allow any animal to leave

the stable out of its turn. Among other bequests made by Hobson, and

commemorated by Milton, was a conduit for the Cambridge market-place,

for which he provided the perpetual maintenance. See _Spectator_, No.

509 (14th of October 1712).

HOBY, SIR THOMAS (1530-1566), English diplomatist and translator, son of

William Hoby of Leominster, was born in 1530. He entered St John's

College, Cambridge, in 1545, but in 1547 he went to Strassburg, where he

was the guest of Martin Bucer, whose _Gratulation ... unto the Church of

Englande for the restitution of Christes Religion_ he translated into

English. He then proceeded to Italy, visiting Padua and Venice, Florence

and Siena, and in May 1550 he had settled at Rome, when he was summoned

by his half-brother, Sir Philip Hoby (1505-1558), then ambassador at the

emperor's court, to Augsburg. The brothers returned to England at the

end of the year, and Thomas attached himself to the service of the

marquis of Northampton, whom he accompanied to France on an embassy to

arrange a marriage between Edward VI. and the princess Elizabeth.

Shortly after he returned to England he started once more for Paris, and

in 1552 he was engaged on his translation of _The Courtyer of Count

Baldessar Castilio_. His work was probably completed in 1554, and the

freedom of the allusions to the Roman church probably accounts for the

fact that it was withheld from publication until 1561. The _Cortegiano_

of Baldassare Castiglione, which Dr Johnson called "the best book that

ever was written upon good breeding," is a book as entirely typical of

the Italian Renaissance as Machiavelli's _Prince_ in another direction.

It exercised an immense influence on the standards of chivalry

throughout Europe, and was long the recognized authority for the

education of a nobleman. The accession of Mary made it desirable for the

Hobys to remain abroad, and they were in Italy until the end of 1555.

Thomas Hoby married in 1558 Elizabeth, the learned daughter of Sir

Anthony Cook, who wrote a Latin epitaph on her husband. He was knighted

in 1566 by Elizabeth, and was sent to France as English ambassador. He

died on the 13th of July in the same year in Paris, and was buried in

Bisham Church.

His son, SIR EDWARD HOBY (1560-1617), enjoyed Elizabeth's favour, and he

was employed on various confidential missions. He was constable of

Queenborough Castle, Kent, where he died on the 1st of March 1617. He

took part in the religious controversies of the time, publishing many

pamphlets against Theophilus Higgons and John Fludd or Floyd. He

translated, from the French of Mathieu Coignet, _Politique Discourses on

Trueth and Lying_ (1586).

The authority for Thomas Hoby's biography is a MS. "Booke of the

Travaile and lief of me Thomas Hoby, with diverse things worth the

noting." This was edited for the Royal Historical Society by Edgar

Powell in 1902. Hoby's translation of _The Courtyer_ was edited (1900)

by Professor Walter Raleigh for the "Tudor Translations" series.

HOCHE, LAZARE (1768-1797), French general, was born of poor parents near

Versailles on the 24th of June 1768. At sixteen years of age he enlisted

as a private soldier in the _Gardes francaises_. He spent his entire

leisure in earning extra pay by civil work, his object being to provide

himself with books, and this love of study, which was combined with a

strong sense of duty and personal courage, soon led to his promotion.

When the _Gardes francaises_ were broken up in 1789 he was a corporal,

and thereafter he served in various line regiments up to the time of his

receiving a commission in 1792. In the defence of Thionville in that

year Hoche earned further promotion, and he served with credit in the

operations of 1792-1793 on the northern frontier of France. At the

battle of Neerwinden he was aide-de-camp to General le Veneur, and when

Dumouriez deserted to the Austrians, Hoche, along with le Veneur and

others, fell under suspicion of treason; but after being kept under

arrest and unemployed for some months he took part in the defence of

Dunkirk, and in the same year (1793) he was promoted successively _chef

de brigade_, general of brigade, and general of division. In October

1793 he was provisionally appointed to command the Army of the Moselle,

and within a few weeks he was in the field at the head of his army in

Lorraine. His first battle was that of Kaiserslautern (28th-30th of

November) against Prussians. The French were defeated, but even in the

midst of the Terror the Committee of Public Safety continued Hoche in

his command. Pertinacity and fiery energy in their eyes outweighed

everything else, and Hoche soon showed that he possessed these

qualities. On the 22nd of December he stormed the lines of Froschweiler,

and the representatives of the Convention with his army at once added

the Army of the Rhine to his sphere of command. On the 26th of December

the French carried by assault the famous lines of Weissenburg, and

Hoche pursued his success, sweeping the enemy before him to the middle

Rhine in four days. He then put his troops into winter quarters. Before

the following campaign opened, he married Anne Adelaide Dechaux at

Thionville (March 11th, 1794). But ten days later he was suddenly

arrested, charges of treason having been preferred by Pichegru, the

displaced commander of the Army of the Rhine, and by his friends. Hoche

escaped execution, however, though imprisoned in Paris until the fall of

Robespierre. Shortly after his release he was appointed to command

against the Vendeans (21st of August 1794). He completed the work of his

predecessors in a few months by the peace of Jaunaye (15th of February

1795), but soon afterwards the war was renewed by the Royalists. Hoche

showed himself equal to the crisis and inflicted a crushing blow on the

Royalist cause by defeating and capturing de Sombreuil's expedition at

Quiberon and Penthievre (16th-21st of July 1795). Thereafter, by means

of mobile columns (which he kept under good discipline) he succeeded

before the summer of 1796 in pacifying the whole of the west, which had

for more than three years been the scene of a pitiless civil war. After

this he was appointed to organize and command the troops destined for

the invasion of Ireland, and he started on this enterprise in December

1796. A tempest, however, separated Hoche from the expedition, and after

various adventures the whole fleet returned to Brest without having

effected its purpose. Hoche was at once transferred to the Rhine

frontier, where he defeated the Austrians at Neuwied (April), though

operations were soon afterwards brought to an end by the Preliminaries

of Leoben. Later in 1797 he was minister of war for a short period, but

in this position he was surrounded by obscure political intrigues, and,

finding himself the dupe of Barras and technically guilty of violating

the constitution, he quickly laid down his office, returning to his

command on the Rhine frontier. But his health grew rapidly worse, and he

died at Wetzlar on the 19th of September 1797 of consumption. The belief

was widely spread that he had been poisoned, but the suspicion seems to

have been without foundation. He was buried by the side of his friend

Marceau in a fort on the Rhine, amidst the mourning not only of his army

but of all France.

See Privat, _Notions historiques sur la vie morale, politique et

militaire du general Hoche_ (Strassburg, 1798); Daunou, _Eloge du

general Hoche_ (1798), delivered on behalf of the Institut at Hoche's

funeral; Rousselin, _Vie de Lazare Hoche, general des armees de la

republique francaise_ (Paris, 1798; this work was printed at the

public expense and distributed to the schools); Dubroca, _Eloge

funebre du general Hoche_ (Paris, 1800); _Vie et pensees du general

Hoche_ (Bern); Champrobert, _Notice historique sur Lazare Hoche, le

pacificateur de la Vendee_ (Paris, 1840); Dourille, _Histoire de

Lazare Hoche_ (Paris, 1844); Desprez, _Lazare Hoche d'apres sa

correspondance_ (Paris, 1858; new ed., 1880); Bergounioux, _Essai sur

la vie de Lazare Hoche_ (1852); E. de Bonnechose, _Lazare Hoche_

(1867); H. Martin, _Hoche et Bonaparte_ (1875); Dutemple, _Vie

politique et militaire du general Hoche_ (1879); Escaude, _Hoche en

Irlande_ (1888); Cuneo d'Ornano, _Hoche_ (1892); A. Chuquet, _Hoche et

la lutte pour l'Alsace_ (a volume of this author's series on the

campaigns of the Revolution, 1893); E. Charavaray, _Le General Hoche_

(1893); A. Duruy, _Hoche et Marceau_ (1885).

HOCHHEIM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau,

situated on an elevation not far from the right bank of the Main, 3 m.

above its influx into the Rhine and 3 m. E. of Mainz by the railway from

Cassel to Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1905) 3779. It has an Evangelical and

a Roman Catholic church, and carries on an extensive trade in wine, the

English word "Hock," the generic term for Rhine wine, being derived from

its name. Hochheim is mentioned in the chronicles as early as the 7th

century. It is also memorable as the scene of a victory gained here, on

the 7th of November 1813 by the Austrians over the French.

See Schuler, _Geschichte der Stadt Hochheim am Main_ (Hochheim, 1888).

HOCHST, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau on

the Main, 6 m. by rail W. of Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1905) 14,121. It

is a busy industrial town with large dye-works and manufactures of

machinery, snuff, tobacco, waxcloth, gelatine, furniture and biscuits.

Brewing is carried on and there is a considerable river trade. The

Roman Catholic church of St Justinus is a fine basilica originally built

in the 9th century; it has been restored several times, and a Gothic

choir was added in the 15th century. The town has also an Evangelical

church and a synagogue, and a statue of Bismarck by Alois Mayer. Hochst

belonged formerly to the electors of Mainz who had a palace here; this

was destroyed in 1634 with the exception of one fine tower which still

remains. In 1622 Christian, duke of Brunswick, was defeated here by

Count Tilly, and in 1795 the Austrians gained a victory here over the

French.

Hochst is also the name of a small town in Hesse. This has some

manufactures, and was formerly the seat of a Benedictine monastery.

HOCHSTADT, a town of Bavaria, Germany, in the district of Swabia, on the

left bank of the Danube, 34 m. N.E. of Ulm by rail. Pop. (1905) 2305. It

has three Roman Catholic churches, a castle flanked by walls and towers

and some small industries, including malting and brewing. Hochstadt,

which came into the possession of Bavaria in 1266, has been a place of

battles. Here Frederick of Hohenstaufen, vicegerent of the Empire for

Henry IV., was defeated by Henry's rival, Hermann of Luxemburg, in 1081;

in 1703 the Imperialists were routed here by Marshal Villars in command

of the French; in August 1704 Marlborough and Prince Eugene defeated the

French and Bavarians commanded by Max Emanuel, the elector of Bavaria

and Marshal Tallard, this battle being usually known as that of

Blenheim; and in June 1800 an engagement took place here between the

Austrians and the French.

There is another small town in Bavaria named Hochstadt. Pop. 2000. This

is on the river Aisch, not far from Bamberg, to which bishopric it

belonged from 1157 to 1802, when it was ceded to Bavaria.

HOCHSTETTER, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN VON, BARON (1829-1884), Austrian

geologist, was born at Esslingen, Wurtemberg, on the 30th of April 1829.

He was the son of Christian Ferdinand Hochstetter (1787-1860), a

clergyman and professor at Brunn, who was also a botanist and

mineralogist. Having received his early education at the evangelical

seminary at Maulbronn, he proceeded to the university of Tubingen; there

under F. A. Quenstedt the interest he already felt in geology became

permanently fixed, and there he obtained his doctor's degree and a

travelling scholarship. In 1852 he joined the staff of the Imperial

Geological Survey of Austria and was engaged until 1856 in parts of

Bohemia, especially in the Bohmerwald, and in the Fichtel and Karlsbad

mountains. His excellent reports established his reputation. Thus he

came to be chosen as geologist to the Novara expedition (1857-1859), and

made numerous valuable observations in the voyage round the world. In

1859 he was engaged by the government of New Zealand to make a rapid

geological survey of the islands. On his return he was appointed in 1860

professor of mineralogy and geology at the Imperial Polytechnic

Institute in Vienna, and in 1876 he was made superintendent of the

Imperial Natural History Museum. In these later years he explored

portions of Turkey and eastern Russia, and he published papers on a

variety of geological, palaeontological and mineralogical subjects. He

died at Vienna on the 18th of July 1884.

PUBLICATIONS.--_Karlsbad, seine geognostischen Verhaltnisse und seine

Quellen_ (1858); _Neu-Seeland_ (1863); _Geological and Topographical

Atlas of New Zealand_ (1864); _Leitfaden der Mineralogie und Geologie_

(with A. Bisching) (1876, ed. 8, 1890).

HOCKEY (possibly derived from the "hooked" stick with which it is

played; cf. O. Fr. _hoquet_, shepherd's crook), a game played with a

ball or some similar object by two opposing sides, using hooked or bent

sticks, with which each side attempts to drive it into the other's goal.

In one or more of its variations Hockey was known to most northern

peoples in both Europe and Asia, and the Romans possessed a game of

similar nature. It was played indiscriminately on the frozen ground or

the ice in winter. In Scotland it was called "shinty," and in Ireland

"hurley," and was usually played on the hard, sandy sea-shore with

numerous players on each side. The rules were simple and the play very

rough.

Modern Hockey, properly so called, is played during the cold season on

the hard turf, and owes its recent vogue to the formation of "The Men's

Hockey Association" in England in 1875. The rules drawn up by the

Wimbledon Club in 1883 still obtain in all essentials. Since 1895

"international" matches at hockey have been played annually between

England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales; and in 1907 a match was played

between England and France, won by England by 14 goals to nil. In 1890

Divisional Association matches (North, South, West, Midlands) and

inter-university matches (Oxford and Cambridge) were inaugurated, and

have since been played annually. County matches are also now regularly

played in England, twenty-six counties competing in 1907. Of other

hockey clubs playing regular matches in 1907, there were eighty-one in

the London district, and fifty-nine in the provinces.

[Illustration: Diagram of Hockey Field.

G, Goal. RW, Right Wing.

RB, Right Back. RI, Inside Right.

LB, Left Back. CF, Centre Forward.

RH, Right Half. LI, Inside Left.

CH, Centre Half. LW, Left Wing.]

LH, Left Half.

The game is played by teams of eleven players on a ground 100 yds.

long and 50 to 60 yds. wide. The goals are in the centre of each

end-line, and consist of two uprights 7 ft. high surmounted by a

horizontal bar, enclosing a space 12 ft. wide. In front of each goal

is a space enclosed by a curved line, its greatest diameter from the

goal-line being 15 ft., called the _striking-circle_. The positions of

the players on each side may be seen on the accompanying diagram. Two

umpires, one on each side of the centre-line, officiate.

The ball is an ordinary cricket-ball painted white. The stick has a

hard-wood curved head, and a handle of cork or wrapped cane. It must

not exceed 2 in. in diameter nor 28 oz. in weight. At the start of the

game, which consists of two thirty or thirty-five minute periods, the

two centre-forwards "bully off" the ball in the middle of the field.

In "bullying off" each centre must strike the ground on his own side

of the ball three times with his stick and strike his opponent's stick

three times alternately; after which either may strike the ball. Each

side then endeavours, by means of striking, passing and dribbling, to

drive the ball into its opponents' goal. A player is "off side" if he

is nearer the enemy's goal than one of his own side who strikes the

ball, and he may not strike the ball himself until it has been touched

by one of the opposing side. The ball may be caught (but not held) or

stopped by any part of the body, but may not be picked up, carried,

kicked, thrown or knocked except with the stick. An opponent's stick

may be hooked, but not an opponent's person, which may not be

obstructed in any way. No left-handed play is allowed. Penalties for

infringing rules are of two classes; "free hits" and "penalty

bullies," to be taken where the foul occurred. For flagrant fouls

penalty goals may also be awarded. A "corner" occurs when the ball

goes behind the goal-line, but not into goal. If it is hit by the

attacking side, or unintentionally by the defenders, it must be

brought out 25 yds., in a direction at right angles to the goal-line

from the point where it crossed the line, and there "bullied." But if

the ball is driven from within the 25-yd. line unintentionally behind

the goal-line by the defenders, a member of the attacking side is

given a free hit from a point within 3 yds. of a corner flag, the

members of the defending side remaining behind their goal-line. If the

ball is hit intentionally behind the goal-line by the attacking side,

the free hit is taken from the point where the ball went over. No goal

can be scored from a free hit directly.

_Ice Hockey_ (or _Bandy_, to give it its original name) is far more

popular than ordinary Hockey in countries where there is much ice; in

fact in America "Hockey" means Ice Hockey, while the land game is called

Field Hockey. Ice Hockey in its simplest form of driving a ball across a

given limit with a stick or club has been played for centuries in

northern Europe, attaining its greatest popularity in the Low Countries,

and there are many 16th- and 17th-century paintings extant which

represent games of Bandy, the players using an implement formed much

like a golf club.

In England Bandy is controlled by the "National Bandy Association." A

team consists of eleven players, wearing skates, and the proper space

for play is 200 yds. by 100 yds. in extent. The ball is of solid

india-rubber, between 2(1/4) and 2(3/4) in. in diameter. The bandies

are 2 in. in diameter and about 4 ft. long. The goals, placed in the

centre of each goal-line, consist of two upright posts 7 ft. high and

12 ft. apart, connected by a lath. A match is begun by the referee

throwing up the ball in the centre of the field, after which it must

not be touched other than with the bandy until a goal is scored or the

ball passes the boundaries of the course, in which case it is hit into

the field in any direction excepting forward from the point where it

went out by the player who touched it last. If the ball is hit across

the goal-line but not into a goal, it is hit out by one of the

defenders from the point where it went over, the opponents not being

allowed to approach nearer than 25 yds. from the goal-line while the

hit is made.

[Illustration: Hockey Stick.]

In America the development of the modern game is due to the Victoria

Hockey Club and McGill University (Montreal). About 1881 the secretary

of the former club made the first efforts towards drawing up a

recognized code of laws, and for some time afterwards playing rules

were agreed upon from time to time whenever an important match was

played, the chief teams being, besides those already mentioned, the

Ottawa, Quebec, Crystal and Montreal Hockey Clubs, the first general

tournament taking place in 1884. Three years later the "Amateur Hockey

Association of Canada" was formed, and a definite code of rules drawn

up. Soon afterwards, in consequence of exhibitions given by the best

Canadian teams in some of the larger cities of the United States, the

new game was taken up by American schools, colleges and athletic

clubs, and became nearly as popular in the northern states as in the

Dominion. The rules differ widely from those of English Bandy. The

rink must be at least 112 ft. long by 58 ft. wide, and seven players

form a side. The goals are 6 ft. wide and 4 ft. high and are provided

with goal-nets. Instead of the English painted cricket-ball a puck is

used, made of vulcanized rubber in the form of a draught-stone, 1 in.

thick, and 3 in. in diameter. The sticks are made of one piece of hard

wood, and may not be more than 3 in. wide at any part. The game is

played for two half-hour or twenty-minute periods with an intermission

of ten minutes. At the beginning of a match, and also when a goal has

been made, the puck is _faced_, i.e. it is placed in the middle of the

rink between the sticks of the two left-centres, and the referee calls

"play." Whichever side then secures the ball endeavours by means of

passing and dribbling to get the puck into a position from which a

goal may be _shot_. The puck may be stopped by any part of the person

but not carried or knocked except with the stick. No stick may be

raised above the shoulder except when actually striking the puck. When

the puck is driven off the rink or behind the goal, or a foul has been

made behind the goal, it is faced 5 yds. inside the rink. The

goal-keeper must maintain a standing position.

There are a number of Hockey organizations in America, all under the

jurisdiction of the "American Amateur Hockey League" in the United

States and the "Canadian Amateur Athletic League" in Canada.

_Ice Polo_, a winter sport similar to Ice Hockey, is almost

exclusively played in the New England states. A rubber-covered ball is

used and the stick is heavier than that used in Ice Hockey. The

radical difference between the two games is that, in Ice Polo, there

is no strict off-side rule, so that passes and shots at goal may come

from any and often the most unexpected direction. Five men constitute

a team: a goal-tend, a half-back, a centre and two rushers. The

rushers must be rapid skaters, adepts in dribbling and passing and

good goal shots. The centre supports the rushers, passing the ball to

them or trying for goal himself. The half-back is the first defence

and the goal-tend the last. The rink is 150 ft. long.

_Ring Hockey_ may be played on the floor of any gymnasium or large

room by teams of six, comprising a goal-keeper, a quarter, three

forwards and a centre. The goals consist of two uprights 3 ft. high

and 4 ft. apart. The ring, which takes the place of the ball or puck,

is made of flexible rubber, and is 5 in. in diameter with a 3-in.

opening through the centre. It weighs between 12 and 16 oz. The stick

is a wand of light but tough wood, between 36 and 40 in. long, about

3/4 in. in diameter, provided with a 5-in. guard 20 in. from the lower

end. The method of shooting is to insert the end of the stick in the

hole of the ring and drive it towards the goal. A goal shot from the

field counts one point, a goal from a foul 1/2 point. When a foul is

called by the referee a player of the opposing side is allowed a free

shot for goal from any point on the quarter line.

_Roller Polo_, played extensively during the winter months in the

United States, is practically Ice Polo adapted to the floors of

gymnasiums and halls, the players, five on a side, wearing

roller-skates. The first professional league was organized in 1883.

HOCK-TIDE, an ancient general holiday in England, celebrated on the

second Monday and Tuesday after Easter Sunday. Hock-Tuesday was an

important term day, rents being then payable, for with Michaelmas it

divided the rural year into its winter and summer halves. The derivation

of the word is disputed: any analogy with Ger. _hoch_, "high," being

generally denied. No trace of the word is found in Old English, and

"hock-day," its earliest use in composition, appears first in the 12th

century. The characteristic pastime of hock-tide was called binding. On

Monday the women, on Tuesday the men, stopped all passers of the

opposite sex and bound them with ropes till they bought their release

with a small payment, or a rope was stretched across the highroads, and

the passers were obliged to pay toll. The money thus collected seems to

have gone towards parish expenses. Many entries are found in parish

registers under "Hocktyde money." The hock-tide celebration became

obsolete in the beginning of the 18th century. At Coventry there was a

play called "The Old Coventry Play of Hock Tuesday." This, suppressed at

the Reformation owing to the incidental disorder, and revived as part of

the festivities on Queen Elizabeth's visit to Kenilworth in July 1575,

depicted the struggle between Saxons and Danes, and has given colour to

the suggestion that hock-tide was originally a commemoration of the

massacre of the Danes on St Brice's Day, the 13th of November A.D. 1002,

or of the rejoicings at the death of Hardicanute on the 8th of June 1042

and the expulsion of the Danes. But the dates of these anniversaries do

not bear this out.

HOCUS, a shortened form of "hocus pocus," used in the 17th century in

the sense of "to play a trick on any one," to "hoax," which is generally

taken to be a derivative. "Hocus pocus" appears to have been a mock

Latin expression first used as the name of a juggler or conjurer. Thus

in Ady's _Candle in the Dark_ (1655), quoted in the _New English

Dictionary_, "I will speak of one man ... that went about in King James

his time ... who called himself, The Kings Majesties most excellent

Hocus Pocus, and so was called, because that at the playing of every

Trick, he used to say, _Hocus pocus, tontus talontus, vade celeriter

jubeo_, a dark composure of words, to blinde the eyes of the beholders,

to make his Trick pass the more currantly without discovery."

Tillotson's guess (_Sermons_, xxvi.) that the phrase was a corruption of

_hoc est corpus_ and alluded to the words of the Eucharist, "in

ridiculous imitation of the priests of the Church of Rome in their trick

of Transubstantiation," has frequently been accepted as a serious

derivation, but has no foundation. A connexion with a supposed demon of

Scandinavian mythology, called "Ochus Bochus," is equally unwarranted.

"Hocus" is used as a verb, meaning to drug, stupefy with opium, &c., for

a criminal purpose. This use dates from the beginning of the 19th

century.

HODDEN (a word of unknown origin), a coarse kind of cloth made of undyed

wool, formerly much worn by the peasantry of Scotland. It was usually

made on small hand-looms by the peasants themselves. Grey hodden was

made by mixing black and white fleeces together in the proportion of one

to twelve when weaving.

HODDESDON, an urban district in the Hertford parliamentary division of

Hertfordshire, England, near the river Lea, 17 m. N. from London by the

Great Eastern railway (Broxbourne and Hoddesdon station on the Cambridge

line). Pop. (1901), 4711. This is the northernmost of a series of

populous townships extending from the suburbs of London along the Lea

valley as far as its junction with the Stort, which is close to

Hoddesdon. They are in the main residential. Hoddesdon was a famous

coaching station on the Old North Road; and the Bull posting-house is

mentioned in Matthew Prior's "Down Hall." The Lea has been a favourite

resort of anglers (mainly for coarse fish in this part) from the time of

Izaak Walton, in whose book Hoddesdon is specifically named. The church

of St Augustine, Broxbourne, is a fine example of Perpendicular work,

and contains interesting monuments, including an altar tomb with

enamelled brasses of 1473. Hoddesdon probably covers the site of a

Romano-British village.

HODEDA (_Hodeida_, _Hadeda_), a town in Arabia situated on the Red Sea

coast 14 deg. 48' N. and 42 deg. 57' E. It lies on a beach of muddy sand

exposed to the southerly and westerly winds. Steamers anchor more than a

mile from shore, and merchandize has to be transhipped by means of

_sambuks_ or native boats. But Hodeda has become the chief centre of the

maritime trade of Turkish Yemen, and has superseded Mokha as the great

port of export of South Arabian coffee. The town is composed of

stone-built houses of several storeys, and is surrounded, except on the

sea face, by a fortified enceinte. The population is estimated at

33,000, and contains, besides the Arab inhabitants and the Turkish

officials and garrison, a considerable foreign element, Greeks, Indians

and African traders from the opposite coast. There are consulates of

Great Britain, United States, France, Germany, Italy and Greece. The

steam tonnage entering and clearing the port in 1904 amounted to 78,700

tons, the highest hitherto recorded. Regular services are maintained

with Aden, and with Suez, Massowa and the other Red Sea ports. Large

dhows bring dates from the Persian Gulf, and occasional steamers from

Bombay call on their way to Jidda with cargoes of grain. The imports for

1904 amounted in value to L467,000, the chief items being piece goods,

food grains and sugar; the exports amounted to L451,000, including

coffee valued at L229,000.

HODENING, an ancient Christmas custom still surviving in Wales, Kent,

Lancashire and elsewhere. A horse's skull or a wooden imitation on a

pole is carried round by a party of youths, one of whom conceals himself

under a white cloth to simulate the horse's body, holding a lighted

candle in the skull. They make a house-to-house visitation, begging

gratuities. The "Penitential" of Archbishop Theodore (d. 690) speaks of

"any who, on the kalands of January, clothe themselves with the skins of

cattle and carry heads of animals." This, coupled with the fact that

among the primitive Scandinavians the horse was often the sacrifice made

at the winter solstice to Odin for success in battle, has been thought

to justify the theory that hodening is a corruption of Odining.

HODGE, CHARLES (1797-1878), American theologian, was born in

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 28th of December 1797. He graduated

at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton) in 1815, and in 1819 at the

Princeton Theological seminary, where he became an instructor in 1820,

and the first professor of Oriental and Biblical literature in 1822.

Meanwhile, in 1821, he had been ordained as a Presbyterian minister.

From 1826 to 1828 he studied under de Sacy in Paris, under Gesenius and

Tholuck in Halle, and under Hengstenberg, Neander and Humboldt in

Berlin. In 1840 he was transferred to the chair of exegetical and

didactic theology, to which subjects that of polemic theology was added

in 1854, and this office he held until his death. In 1825 he established

the quarterly _Biblical Repertory_, the title of which was changed to

_Biblical Repertory and Theological Review_ in 1830 and to _Biblical

Repertory and Princeton Review_ in 1837. With it, in 1840, was merged

the _Literary and Theological Review_ of New York, and in 1872 the

American Presbyterian Review of New York, the title becoming

_Presbyterian Quarterly and Princeton Review_ in 1872 and _Princeton

Review_ in 1877. He secured for it the position of theological organ of

the Old School division of the Presbyterian church, and continued its

principal editor and contributor until 1868, when the Rev. Lyman H.

Atwater became his colleague. His more important essays were republished

under the titles _Essays and Reviews_ (1857), _Princeton Theological

Essays, and Discussions in Church Polity_ (1878). He was moderator of

the General Assembly (O.S.) in 1846, a member of the committee to revise

the _Book of Discipline_ of the Presbyterian church in 1858, and

president of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions in 1868-1870.

The 24th of April 1872, the fiftieth anniversary of his election to his

professorship, was observed in Princeton as his jubilee by between 400

and 500 representatives of his 2700 pupils, and $50,000 was raised for

the endowment of his chair. He died at Princeton on the 19th of June

1878. Hodge was one of the greatest of American theologians.

Besides his articles in the _Princeton Review_, he published a

_Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans_ (1835, abridged 1836,

rewritten and enlarged 1864, new ed. 1886), _Constitutional History of

the Presbyterian Church in the United States_ (2 vols., 1839-1840);

_The Way of Life_ (1841); _Commentaries on Ephesians_ (1856); 1

_Corinthians_ (1857); 2 _Corinthians_ (1859); _Systematic Theology_ (3

vols., 2200 pp., 1871-1873), probably the best of all modern

expositions of Calvinistic dogmatic; and _What is Darwinism?_ (1874),

in which he opposed "Atheistic Evolutionism." After his death a volume

of _Conference Papers_ (1879) was published. His life, by his son, was

published in 1880.

His son, ARCHIBALD ALEXANDER HODGE (1823-1886), also famous as a

Presbyterian theologian, was born at Princeton on the 18th of July 1823.

He graduated at the College of New Jersey in 1841, and at the Princeton

Theological seminary in 1846, and was ordained in 1847. From 1847 to

1850 he was a missionary at Allahabad, India, and was then pastor of

churches successively at Lower West Nottingham, Maryland (1851-1855); at

Fredericksburg, Virginia (1855-1861), and at Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania

(1861-1864). From 1864 to 1877 he was professor of didactic and

polemical theology in the Allegheny Theological seminary at Allegheny,

Pennsylvania, where he was also from 1866 to 1877 pastor of the North

Church (Presbyterian). In 1878 he succeeded his father as professor of

didactic theology at the Princeton seminary. He died on the 11th of

November 1886. Besides writing the biography of his father, he was the

author of _Outlines of Theology_ (1860, new ed. 1875; enlarged, 1879);

_The Atonement_ (1867); _Exposition of the Confession of Faith_ (1869);

and _Popular Lectures on Theological Themes_ (1887).

See C. A. Salmond's _Charles and A. A. Hodge_ (New York, 1888).

HODGKIN, THOMAS (1831- ), British historian, son of John Hodgkin

(1800-1875), barrister, was born in London on the 29th of July 1831.

Having been educated as a member of the Society of Friends and taken the

degree of B.A. at London University, he became a partner in the banking

house of Hodgkin, Barnett & Co., Newcastle-on-Tyne, a firm afterwards

amalgamated with Lloyds' Bank. While continuing in business as a banker,

Hodgkin devoted a good deal of time to historical study, and soon became

a leading authority on the history of the early middle ages, his books

being indispensable to all students of this period. His chief works are,

_Italy and her Invaders_ (8 vols., Oxford, 1880-1899); _The Dynasty of

Theodosius_ (Oxford, 1889); _Theodoric the Goth_ (London, 1891); and an

introduction to the _Letters_ of Cassiodorus (London, 1886). He also

wrote a _Life of Charles the Great_ (London, 1897); _Life of George Fox_

(Boston, 1896); and the opening volume of Longman's _Political History

of England_ (London, 1906).

HODGKINSON, EATON (1789-1861), English engineer, the son of a farmer,

was born at Anderton near Northwich, Cheshire, on the 26th of February

1789. After attending school at Northwich, he began to help his widowed

mother on the farm, but to escape from that uncongenial occupation he

persuaded her in 1811 to remove to Manchester and start a pawnbroking

business. There he made the acquaintance of John Dalton, and began those

inquiries into the strength of materials which formed the work of his

life. He was associated with Sir William Fairbairn in an important

series of experiments on cast iron, and his help was sought by Robert

Stephenson in regard to the forms and dimensions of the tubes for the

Britannia bridge. A paper which he communicated to the Royal Society on

"Experimental Researches on the Strength of Pillars of Cast Iron and

other Materials," in 1840 gained him a Royal medal in 1841, and he was

also elected a fellow. In 1847 he was appointed professor of the

mechanical principles of engineering in University College, London, and

at the same time he was employed as a member of the Royal Commission

appointed to inquire into the application of iron to railway structures.

In 1848 he was chosen president of the Manchester Philosophical Society,

of which he had been a member since 1826, and to which, both previously

and subsequently, he contributed many of the more important results of

his discoveries. For several years he took an active part in the

discussions of the Institution of Civil Engineers, of which he was

elected an honorary member in 1851. He died at Eaglesfield House, near

Manchester, on the 18th of June 1861.

HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON (1800-1894), English administrator, ethnologist

and naturalist, was born at Lower Beech, Prestbury, Cheshire, on the 1st

of February 1800. His father, Brian Hodgson, came of a family of country

gentlemen, and his mother was a daughter of William Houghton of

Manchester. In 1816 he obtained an East Indian writership. After passing

through the usual course at Haileybury, he went out to India in 1818,

and after a brief service at Kumaon as assistant-commissioner was in

1820 appointed assistant to the Resident at Katmandu, the capital of

Nepal. In 1823 he obtained an under-secretaryship in the foreign

department at Calcutta, but his health failed, and in 1824 he returned

to Nepal, to which the whole of his life, whether in or out of India,

may be said to have been thenceforth given. He devoted himself

particularly to the collection of Sanskrit MSS. relating to Buddhism,

and hardly less so to the natural history and antiquities of the

country, and by 1839 had contributed eighty-nine papers to the

_Transactions_ of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. His investigations of

the ethnology of the aboriginal tribes were especially important. In

1833 he became Resident in Nepal, and passed many stormy years in

conflict with the cruel and faithless court to which he was accredited.

He succeeded, nevertheless, in concluding a satisfactory treaty in 1839;

but in 1842 his policy, which involved an imperious attitude towards the

native government, was upset by the interference of Lord Ellenborough,

but just arrived in India and not unnaturally anxious to avoid trouble

in Nepal during the conflict in Afghanistan. Hodgson took upon himself

to disobey his instructions, a breach of discipline justified to his own

mind by his superior knowledge of the situation, but which the

governor-general could hardly be expected to overlook. He was,

nevertheless, continued in office for a time, but was recalled in 1843,

and resigned the service. In 1845 he returned to India and settled at

Darjeeling, where he devoted himself entirely to his favourite pursuits,

becoming the greatest authority on the Buddhist religion and on the

flora of the Himalayas. It was he who early suggested the recruiting of

Gurkhas for the Indian army, and who influenced Sir Jung Bahadur to lend

his assistance to the British during the mutiny in 1857. In 1858 he

returned to England, and lived successively in Cheshire and

Gloucestershire, occupied with his studies to the last. He died at his

seat at Alderley Grange in the Cotswold Hills on the 23rd of May 1894.

No man has done so much to throw light on Buddhism as it exists in

Nepal, and his collections of Sanskrit manuscripts, presented to the

East India Office, and of natural history, presented to the British

Museum, are unique as gatherings from a single country. He wrote

altogether 184 philological and ethnological and 127 scientific papers,

as well as some valuable pamphlets on native education, in which he took

great interest. His principal work, _Illustrations of the Literature and

Religion of Buddhists_ (1841), was republished with the most important

of his other writings in 1872-1880.

His life was written by Sir W. W. Hunter in 1896.

HODMEZO-VASARHELY, a town of Hungary, in the county of Csongrad, 135 m.

S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 60,824 of which about two-thirds

are Protestants. The town, situated on Lake Hod, not far from the right

bank of the Tisza, has a modern aspect. The soil of the surrounding

country, of which 383 sq. m. belong to the municipality, is exceedingly

fertile, the chief products being wheat, mangcorn, barley, oats, millet,

maize and various descriptions of fruit, especially melons. Extensive

vineyards, yielding large quantities of both white and red grapes,

skirt the town, and the horned cattle and horses of Hodmezo-Vasarhely

have a good reputation; sheep and pigs are also extensively reared. The

commune is protected from inundations of the Tisza by an enormous dike,

but the town, nevertheless, sometimes suffers considerable damage during

the spring floods.

HODOGRAPH (Gr. [Greek: hodos], a way, and [Greek: graphein], to write),

a curve of which the radius vector is proportional to the velocity of a

moving particle. It appears to have been used by James Bradley, but for

its practical development we are mainly indebted to Sir William Rowan

Hamilton, who published an account of it in the _Proceedings of the

Royal Irish Academy_, 1846. If a point be in motion in any orbit and

with any velocity, and if, at each instant, a line be drawn from a fixed

point parallel and equal to the velocity of the moving point at that

instant, the extremities of these lines will lie on a curve called the

hodograph. Let PP1P2 be the path of the moving point, and let OT, OT1,

OT2, be drawn from the fixed point O parallel and equal to the

velocities at P, P1, P2 respectively, then the locus of T is the

hodograph of the orbits described by P (see figure). From this

definition we have the following important fundamental property which

belongs to all hodographs, viz. that at any point the tangent to the

hodograph is parallel to the direction, and the velocity in the

hodograph equal to the magnitude of the resultant acceleration at the

corresponding point of the orbit. This will be evident if we consider

that, since radii vectores of the hodograph represent velocities in the

orbit, the elementary arc between two consecutive radii vectores of the

hodograph represents the velocity which must be compounded with the

velocity of the moving point at the beginning of any short interval of

time to get the velocity at the end of that interval, that is to say,

represents the change of velocity for that interval. Hence the

elementary arc divided by the element of time is the rate of change of

velocity of the moving-point, or in other words, the velocity in the

hodograph is the acceleration in the orbit.

[Illustration]

Analytically thus (Thomson and Tait, _Nat. Phil._):--Let x, y, z be

the coordinates of P in the orbit, [xi], [eta], [zeta] those of the

corresponding point T in the hodograph, then

[xi] = dx/dt, [eta] = dy/dt, [zeta] = dz/dt;

therefore

d[xi] d[eta] d[zeta]

---------- = ----------- = ----------- (1).

(d^2x/dt^2) (d^2y/dt^2) (d^2z/dt^2)

Also, if s be the arc of the hodograph,

ds / /d[xi]\^2 /d[eta]\^2 /d[zeta]\^2

-- = v = / ( ----- ) + ( ------ ) + ( ------- )

dt \/ \ dt / \ dt / \ dt /

/ /d^2x\^2 /d^2y\^2 /d^2z\^2

= / ( --- ) + ( --- ) + ( --- ) (2).

\/ \dt^2/ \dt^2/ \dt^2/

Equation (1) shows that the tangent to the hodograph is parallel to

the line of resultant acceleration, and (2) that the velocity in the

hodograph is equal to the acceleration.

Every orbit must clearly have a hodograph, and, conversely, every

hodograph a corresponding orbit; and, theoretically speaking, it is

possible to deduce the one from the other, having given the other

circumstances of the motion.

For applications of the hodograph to the solution of kinematical

problems see MECHANICS.

HODSON, WILLIAM STEPHEN RAIKES (1821-1858), known as "Hodson of Hodson's

Horse," British leader of light cavalry during the Indian Mutiny, third

son of the Rev. George Hodson, afterwards archdeacon of Stafford and

canon of Lichfield, was born on the 19th of March 1821 at Maisemore

Court, near Gloucester. He was educated at Rugby and Cambridge, and

accepted a cadetship in the Indian army at the advanced age for those

days of twenty-three. Joining the 2nd Bengal Grenadiers he went through

the first Sikh War, and was present at the battles of Moodkee,

Ferozeshah and Sobraon. In one of his letters home at this period he

calls the campaign a "tissue of mismanagement, blunders, errors,

ignorance and arrogance", and outspoken criticism such as this brought

him many bitter enemies throughout his career, who made the most of

undeniable faults of character. In 1847, through the influence of Sir

Henry Lawrence, he was appointed adjutant of the corps of Guides, and in

1852 was promoted to the command of the Guides with the civil charge of

Yusafzai. But his brusque and haughty demeanour to his equals made him

many enemies. In 1855 two separate charges were brought against him. The

first was that he had arbitrarily imprisoned a Pathan chief named Khadar

Khan, on suspicion of being concerned in the murder of Colonel Mackeson.

The man was acquitted, and Lord Dalhousie removed Hodson from his civil

functions and remanded him to his regiment on account of his lack of

judgment. The second charge was more serious, amounting to an accusation

of malversation in the funds of his regiment. He was tried by a court of

inquiry, who found that his conduct to natives had been "unjustifiable

and oppressive," that he had used abusive language to his native

officers and personal violence to his men, and that his system of

accounts was "calculated to screen peculation and fraud." Subsequently

another inquiry was carried out by Major Reynell Taylor, which dealt

simply with Hodson's accounts and found them to be "an honest and

correct record ... irregularly kept." At this time the Guides were split

up into numerous detachments, and there was a system of advances which

made the accounts very complicated. The verdicts of the two inquiries

may be set against each other, and this particular charge declared "not

proven." It is possible that Hodson was careless and extravagant in

money matters rather than actually dishonest; but there were several

similar charges against him. During a tour through Kashmir with Sir

Henry Lawrence he kept the purse and Sir Henry could never obtain an

account from him; subsequently Sir George Lawrence accused him of

embezzling the funds of the Lawrence Asylum at Kasauli; while Sir

Neville Chamberlain in a published letter says of the third brother,

Lord Lawrence, "I am bound to say that Lord Lawrence had no opinion of

Hodson's integrity in money matters. He has often discussed Hodson's

character in talking to me, and it was to him a regret that a man

possessing so many fine gifts should have been wanting in a moral

quality which made him untrustworthy." Finally, on one occasion Hodson

spent L500 of the pay due to Lieutenant Godby, and under threat of

exposure was obliged to borrow the money from a native banker through

one of his officers named Bisharat Ali.

It was just at the time when Hodson's career seemed ruined that the

Indian Mutiny broke out, and he obtained the opportunity of

rehabilitating himself. At the very outset of the campaign he made his

name by riding with despatches from General Anson at Karnal to Meerut

and back again, a distance of 152 m. in all, in seventy-two hours,

through a country swarming with the rebel cavalry. This feat so pleased

the commander-in-chief that he empowered him to raise a regiment of 2000

irregular horse, which became known to fame as Hodson's Horse, and

placed him at the head of the Intelligence Department. In his double

role of cavalry leader and intelligence officer, Hodson played a large

part in the reduction of Delhi and consequently in saving India for the

British empire. He was the finest swordsman in the army, and possessed

that daring recklessness which is the most useful quality of leadership

against Asiatics. In explanation of the fact that he never received the

Victoria Cross it was said of him that it was because he earned it every

day of his life. But he also had the defects of his qualities, and could

display on occasion a certain cruelty and callousness of disposition.

Reference has already been made to Bisharat Ali, who had lent Hodson

money. During the siege of Delhi another native, said to be an enemy of

Bisharat Ali's, informed Hodson that he had turned rebel and had just

reached Khurkhouda, a village near Delhi. Hodson thereupon took out a

body of his sowars, attacked the village, and shot Bisharat Ali and

several of his relatives. General Crawford Chamberlain states that this

was Hodson's way of wiping out the debt. Again, after the fall of Delhi,

Hodson obtained from General Wilson permission to ride out with fifty

horsemen to Humayun's tomb, 6 m. out of Delhi, and bring in Bahadur

Shah, the last of the Moguls. This he did with safety in the face of a

large and threatening crowd, and thus dealt the mutineers a heavy blow.

On the following day with 100 horsemen he went out to the same tomb and

obtained the unconditional surrender of the three princes, who had been

left behind on the previous occasion. A crowd of 6000 persons gathered,

and Hodson with marvellous coolness ordered them to disarm, which they

proceeded to do. He sent the princes on with an escort of ten men, while

with the remaining ninety he collected the arms of the crowd. On

galloping after the princes he found the crowd once more pressing on the

escort and threatening an attack; and fearing that he would be unable to

bring his prisoners into Delhi he shot them with his own hand. This is

the most bitterly criticized action in his career, but no one but the

man on the spot can judge how it is necessary to handle a crowd; and in

addition one of the princes, Abu Bukt, heir-apparent to the throne, had

made himself notorious for cutting off the arms and legs of English

children and pouring the blood into their mothers' mouths. Considering

the circumstances of the moment, Hodson's act at the worst was one of

irregular justice. A more unpleasant side to the question is that he

gave the king a safe conduct, which was afterwards seen by Sir Donald

Stewart, before he left the palace, and presumably for a bribe; and he

took an armlet and rings from the bodies of the princes. He was freely

accused of looting at the time, and though this charge, like that of

peculation, is matter for controversy, it is very strongly supported.

General Pelham Burn said that he saw loot in Hodson's boxes when he

accompanied him from Fatehgarh to take part in the siege of Lucknow, and

Sir Henry Daly said that he found "loads of loot" in Hodson's boxes

after his death, and also a file of documents relating to the Guides

case, which had been stolen from him and of which Hodson denied all

knowledge. On the other hand the Rev. G. Hodson states in his book that

he obtained the inventory of his brother's possessions made by the

Committee of Adjustment and it contained no articles of loot, and Sir

Charles Gough, president of the committee, confirmed this evidence. This

statement is totally incompatible with Sir Henry Daly's and is only one

of many contradictions in the case. Sir Henry Norman stated that to his

personal knowledge Hodson remitted several thousand pounds to Calcutta

which could only have been obtained by looting. On the other hand,

again, Hodson died a poor man, his effects were sold for L170, his widow

was dependent on charity for her passage home, was given apartments by

the queen at Hampton Court, and left only L400 at her death.

Hodson was killed on the 11th of March 1858 in the attack on the Begum

Kotee at Lucknow. He had just arrived on the spot and met a man going to

fetch powder to blow in a door; instead Hodson, with his usual

recklessness, rushed into the doorway and was shot. On the whole, it can

hardly be doubted that he was somewhat unscrupulous in his private

character, but he was a splendid soldier, and rendered inestimable

services to the empire.

The controversy relating to Hodson's moral character is very

complicated and unpleasant. Upon Hodson's side see Rev. G. Hodson,

_Hodson of Hodson's Horse_ (1883), and L. J. Trotter, _A Leader of

Light Horse_ (1901); against him, R. Bosworth Smith, _Life of Lord

Lawrence_, appendix to the 6th edition of 1885; T. R. E. Holmes,

_History of the Indian Mutiny_, appendix N to the 5th edition of 1898,

and _Four Famous Soldiers_ by the same author, 1889; and General Sir

Crawford Chamberlain, _Remarks on Captain Trotter's Biography of Major

W. S. R. Hodson_ (1901).

HODY, HUMPHREY (1659-1707), English divine, was born at Odcombe in

Somersetshire in 1659. In 1676 he entered Wadham College, Oxford, of

which he became fellow in 1685. In 1684 he published _Contra historiam

Aristeae de LXX. interpretibus dissertatio_, in which he showed that the

so-called letter of Aristeas, containing an account of the production of

the Septuagint, was the late forgery of a Hellenist Jew originally

circulated to lend authority to that version. The dissertation was

generally regarded as conclusive, although Isaac Vossius published an

angry and scurrilous reply to it in the appendix to his edition of

Pomponius Mela. In 1689 Hody wrote the _Prolegomena_ to the Greek

chronicle of John Malalas, published at Oxford in 1691. The following

year he became chaplain to Edward Stillingfleet, bishop of Worcester,

and for his support of the ruling party in a controversy with Henry

Dodwell regarding the non-juring bishops he was appointed chaplain to

Archbishop Tillotson, an office which he continued to hold under

Tenison. In 1698 he was appointed regius professor of Greek at Oxford,

and in 1704 was made archdeacon of Oxford. In 1701 he published _A

History of English Councils and Convocations_, and in 1703 in four

volumes _De Bibliorum textis originalibus_, in which he included a

revision of his work on the Septuagint, and published a reply to

Vossius. He died on the 20th of January 1707.

A work, _De Graecis Illustribus_, which he left in manuscript, was

published in 1742 by Samuel Jebb, who prefixed to it a Latin life of

the author.

HOE, RICHARD MARCH (1812-1886), American inventor, was born in New York

City on the 12th of September 1812. He was the son of Robert Hoe

(1784-1833), an English-born American mechanic, who with his

brothers-in-law, Peter and Matthew Smith, established in New York City a

manufactory of printing presses, and used steam to run his machinery.

Richard entered his father's manufactory at the age of fifteen and

became head of the firm (Robert Hoe & Company) on his father's death. He

had considerable inventive genius and set himself to secure greater

speed for printing presses. He discarded the old flat-bed model and

placed the type on a revolving cylinder, a model later developed into

the well-known Hoe rotary or "lightning" press, patented in 1846, and

further improved under the name of the Hoe web perfecting press (see

PRINTING). He died in Florence, Italy, on the 7th of June 1886.

See _A Short History of the Printing Press_ (New York, 1902) by his

nephew Robert Hoe (1839-1909), who was responsible for further

improvements in printing, and was an indefatigable worker in support

of the New York Metropolitan Museum.

HOE (through Fr. _houe_ from O.H.G. _houwa_, mod. Ger. _Haue_; the root

is seen in "hew," to cut, cleave; the word must be distinguished from

"hoe," promontory, tongue of land, seen in place names, e.g. Morthoe,

Luton Hoo, the Hoe at Plymouth, &c.; this is the same as Northern

English "heugh" and is connected with "hang"), an agricultural and

gardening implement used for extirpating weeds, for stirring the

surface-soil in order to break the capillary channels and so prevent the

evaporation of moisture, for singling out turnips and other root-crops

and similar purposes. Among common forms of hoe are the ordinary

garden-hoe (numbered _1_ in fig. 1), which consists of a flat blade set

transversely in a long wooden handle; the Dutch or thrust-hoe (_2_),

which has the blade set into the handle after the fashion of a spade;

and the swan-neck hoe (_3_), the best manual hoe for agricultural

purposes, which has a long curved neck to attach the blade to the

handle; the soil falls back over this, blocking is thus avoided and a

longer stroke obtained. Several types of horse-drawn hoe capable of

working one or more rows at a time are used among root and grain crops.

The illustrations show two forms of the implement, the blades of which

differ in shape from those of the garden-hoe. Fig. 2 is in ordinary use

for hoeing between two lines of beans or turnips or other "roots." Fig.

3 is adapted for the narrow rows of grain crops and is also convertible

into a root-hoe. In the lever-hoe, which is largely used in grain crops,

the blades may be raised and lowered by means of a lever. The

horse-drawn hoe is steered by means of handles in the rear, but its

successful working depends on accurate drilling of the seed, because

unless the rows are parallel the roots of the plants are liable to be

cut and the foliage injured. Thus Jethro Tull (17th century), with whose

name the beginning of the practice of horse-hoeing is principally

connected, used the drill which he invented as an essential adjunct in

the so-called "Horse-hoeing Husbandry" (see AGRICULTURE).

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Three Forms of Manual Hoe.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Martin's One-Row Horse Hoe.]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Martin's General Purpose Steerage Horse Hoe.]

HOEFNAGEL, JORIS (1545-1601), Dutch painter and engraver, the son of a

diamond merchant, was born at Antwerp. He travelled abroad, making

drawings from archaeological subjects, and was a pupil of Jan Bol at

Mechlin. He was afterwards patronized by the elector of Bavaria at

Munich, where he stayed eight years, and by the Emperor Rudolph at

Prague. He died at Vienna in 1601. He is famous for his miniature work,

especially on a missal in the imperial library at Vienna; he painted

animals and plants to illustrate works on natural history; and his

engravings (especially for Braun's _Civitates orbis terrarum_, 1572, and

Ortelius's _Theatrum orbis terrarum_, 1570) give him an interesting

place among early topographical draughtsmen.

HOF, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian province of Upper Franconia,

beautifully situated on the Saale, on the north-eastern spurs of the

Fichtelgebirge, 103 m. S.W. of Leipzig on the main line of railway to

Regensburg and Munich. Pop. (1885) 22,257; (1905) 36,348. It has one

Roman Catholic and three Protestant churches (among the latter that of

St Michael, which was restored in 1884), a town hall of 1563, a

gymnasium with an extensive library, a commercial school and a hospital

founded in 1262. It is the seat of various flourishing industries,

notably woollen, cotton and jute spinning, jute weaving, and the

manufacture of cotton and half-woollen fabrics. It has also dye-works,

flour-mills, saw-mills, breweries, iron-works, and manufactures of

machinery, iron and tin wares, chemicals and sugar. In the neighbourhood

there are large marble quarries and extensive iron mines. Hof,

originally called Regnitzhof, was built about 1080. It was held for some

time by the dukes of Meran, and was sold in 1373 to the burgraves of

Nuremberg. The cloth manufacture introduced into it in the 15th century,

and the manufacture of veils begun in the 16th century, greatly promoted

its prosperity, but it suffered severely in the Albertine and Hussite

wars as well as in the Thirty Years' War. In 1792 it came into the

possession of Prussia; in 1806 it fell to France; and in 1810 it was

incorporated with Bavaria. In 1823 the greater part of the town was

destroyed by fire.

See Ernst, _Geschichte und Beschreibung des Bezirks und der Stadt Hof_

(1866); Tillmann, _Die Stadt Hof und ihre Umgebung_ (Hof, 1899), and

C. Meyer, _Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Hof_ (1894-1896).

HOFER, ANDREAS (1767-1810), Tirolese patriot, was born on the 22nd of

November 1767 at St Leonhard, in the Passeier valley. There his father

kept an inn known as "am Sand," which Hofer inherited, and on that

account he was popularly known as the "Sandwirth." In addition to this

he carried on a trade in wine and horses with the north of Italy,

acquiring a high reputation for intelligence and honesty. In the wars

against the French from 1796 to 1805 he took part, first as a

sharp-shooter and afterwards as a captain of militia. By the treaty of

Pressburg (1805) Tirol was transferred from Austria to Bavaria, and

Hofer, who was almost fanatically devoted to the Austrian house, became

conspicuous as a leader of the agitation against Bavarian rule. In 1808

he formed one of a deputation who went to Vienna, at the invitation of

the archduke John, to concert a rising; and when in April 1809 the

Tirolese rose in arms, Hofer was chosen commander of the contingent from

his native valley, and inflicted an overwhelming defeat on the Bavarians

at Sterzing (April 11). This victory, which resulted in the temporary

reoccupation of Innsbruck by the Austrians, made Hofer the most

conspicuous of the insurgent leaders. The rapid advance of Napoleon,

indeed, and the defeat of the main Austrian army under the archduke

Charles, once more exposed Tirol to the French and Bavarians, who

reoccupied Innsbruck. The withdrawal of the bulk of the troops, however,

gave the Tirolese their chance again; after two battles fought on the

Iselberg (May 25 and 29) the Bavarians were again forced to evacuate the

country, and Hofer entered Innsbruck in triumph. An autograph letter of

the emperor Francis (May 29) assured him that no peace would be

concluded by which Tirol would again be separated from the Austrian

monarchy, and Hofer, believing his work accomplished, returned to his

home. Then came the news of the armistice of Znaim (July 12), by which

Tirol and Vorarlberg were surrendered by Austria unconditionally and

given up to the vengeance of the French. The country was now again

invaded by 40,000 French and Bavarian troops, and Innsbruck fell; but

the Tirolese once more organized resistance to the French "atheists and

freemasons," and, after a temporary hesitation, Hofer--on whose head a

price had been placed--threw himself into the movement. On the 13th of

August, in another battle on the Iselberg, the French under Marshal

Lefebvre were routed by the Tirolese peasants, and Hofer once more

entered Innsbruck, which he had some difficulty in saving from sack.

Hofer was now elected _Oberkommandant_ of Tirol, took up his quarters in

the Hofburg at Innsbruck, and for two months ruled the country in the

emperor's name. He preserved the habits of a simple peasant, and his

administration was characterized in part by the peasant's shrewd common

sense, but yet more by a pious solicitude for the minutest details of

faith and morals. On the 29th of September Hofer received from the

emperor a chain and medal of honour, which encouraged him in the belief

that Austria did not intend again to desert him; the news of the

conclusion of the treaty of Schonbrunn (October 14), by which Tirol was

again ceded to Bavaria, came upon him as an overwhelming surprise. The

French in overpowering force at once pushed into the country, and, an

amnesty having been stipulated in the treaty, Hofer and his companions,

after some hesitation, gave in their submission. On the 12th of

November, however, urged on by the hotter heads among the peasant

leaders and deceived by false reports of Austrian victories, Hofer again

issued a proclamation calling the mountaineers to arms. The summons met

with little response; the enemy advanced in irresistible force, and

Hofer, a price once more set on his head, had to take refuge in the

mountains. His hiding-place was betrayed by one of his neighbours, named

Josef Raffl, and on the 27th of January 1810 he was captured by Italian

troops and sent in chains to Mantua. There he was tried by

court-martial, and on the 20th of February was shot, twenty-four hours

after his condemnation. This crime, which was believed to be due to

Napoleon's direct orders, caused an immense sensation throughout Germany

and did much to inflame popular sentiment against the French. At the

court of Austria, too, which was accused of having cynically sacrificed

the hero, it produced a painful impression, and Metternich, when he

visited Paris on the occasion of the marriage of the archduchess Marie

Louise to Napoleon, was charged to remonstrate with the emperor.

Napoleon expressed his regret, stating that the execution had been

carried out against his wishes, having been hurried on by the zeal of

his generals. In 1823 Hofer's remains were removed from Mantua to

Innsbruck, where they were interred in the Franciscan church, and in

1834 a marble statue was erected over his tomb. In 1893 a bronze statue

of him was also set up on the Iselberg. At Meran his patriotic deeds of

heroism are the subject of a festival play celebrated annually in the

open air. In 1818 the patent of nobility bestowed upon him by the

Austrian emperor in 1809 was conferred upon his family.

See _Leben und Thaten des ehemaligen Tyroler Insurgenten-Chefs Andr.

Hofer_ (Berlin, 1810); _Andr. Hofer und die Tyroler Insurrection im

Jahre 1809_ (Munich, 1811); Hormayr, _Geschichte Andr. Hofer's

Sandwirths auf Passeyr_ (Leipzig, 1845); B. Weber, _Das Thal Passeyr

und seine Bewohner mit besonderer Rucksicht auf Andreas Hofer und das

Jahr 1809_ (Innsbruck, 1851); Rapp, _Tirol im Jahr 1809_ (Innsbruck,

1852); Weidinger, _Andreas Hofer und seine Kampfgenossen_ (3rd ed.,

Leipzig, 1861); Heigel, _Andreas Hofer_ (Munich, 1874); Stampfer,

_Sandwirt Andreas Hofer_ (Freiburg, 1874); Schmolze, _Andreas Hofer

und seine Kampfgenossen_ (Innsbruck, 1900). His history has supplied

the materials for tragedies to B. Auerbach and Immermann, and for

numerous ballads, of which some remain very popular in Germany (see

Franke, _Andreas Hofer im Liede_, Innsbruck, 1884).

HOFFDING, HARALD (1843- ), Danish philosopher, was born and educated in

Copenhagen. He became a schoolmaster, and ultimately in 1883 professor

in the university of Copenhagen. He was much influenced by Soren

Kierkegaard in the early development of his thought, but later became a

positivist, retaining, however, and combining with it the spirit and

method of practical psychology and the critical school. His best-known

work is perhaps his _Den nyere Filosofis Historie_ (1894), translated

into English from the German edition (1895) by B. E. Meyer as _History

of Modern Philosophy_ (2 vols., 1900), a work intended by him to

supplement and correct that of Hans Brochner, to whom it is dedicated.

His _Psychology, the Problems of Philosophy_ (1905) and _Philosophy of

Religion_ (1906) also have appeared in English.

Among Hoffding's other writings, practically all of which have been

translated into German, are: _Den engelske Filosofi i vor Tid_ (1874);

_Etik_ (1876; ed. 1879); _Psychologi i Omrids paa Grundlag of

Erfaring_ (ed. 1892); _Psykologiske Undersogelser_ (1889); _Charles

Darwin_ (1889); _Kontinuiteten i Kants filosofiske Udviklingsgang_

(1893); _Det psykologiske Grundlag for logiske Domme_ (1899);

_Rousseau und seine Philosophie_ (1901); _Mindre Arbejder_ (1899).

HOFFMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH (1798-1874), known as HOFFMANN VON

FALLERSLEBEN, German poet, philologist and historian of literature, was

born at Fallersleben in the duchy of Luneburg, Hanover, on the 2nd of

April 1798, the son of the mayor of the town. He was educated at the

classical schools of Helmstedt and Brunswick, and afterwards at the

universities of Gottingen and Bonn. His original intention was to study

theology, but he soon devoted himself entirely to literature. In 1823 he

was appointed custodian of the university library at Breslau, a post

which he held till 1838. He was also made extraordinary professor of the

German language and literature at that university in 1830, and ordinary

professor in 1835; but he was deprived of his chair in 1842 in

consequence of his _Unpolitische Lieder_ (1840-1841), which gave much

offence to the authorities in Prussia. He then travelled in Germany,

Switzerland and Italy, and lived for two or three years in Mecklenburg,

of which he became a naturalized citizen. After the revolution of 1848

he was enabled to return to Prussia, where he was restored to his

rights, and received the _Wartegeld_--the salary attached to a promised

office not yet vacant. He married in 1849, and during the next ten years

lived first in Bingerbruck, afterwards in Neuwied, and then in Weimar,

where together with Oskar Schade (1826-1906) he edited the _Weimarische

Jahrbuch_ (1854-1857). In 1860 he was appointed librarian to the Duke of

Ratibor at the monasterial castle of Corvey near Hoxter on the Weser,

where he died on the 19th of January 1874. Fallersleben was one of the

best popular poets of modern Germany. In politics he ardently

sympathized with the progressive tendencies of his time, and he was

among the earliest and most effective of the political poets who

prepared the way for the outbreak of 1848. As a poet, however, he

acquired distinction chiefly by the ease, simplicity and grace with

which he gave expression to the passions and aspirations of daily life.

Although he had not been scientifically trained in music, he composed

melodies for many of his songs, and a considerable number of them are

sung by all classes in every part of Germany. Among the best known is

the patriotic _Deutschland, Deutschland uber Alles_, composed in 1841 on

the island of Heligoland, where a monument was erected in 1891 to his

memory (subsequently destroyed).

The best of his poetical writings is his _Gedichte_ (1827; 9th ed.,

Berlin, 1887); but there is great merit also in his _Alemannische

Lieder_ (1826; 5th ed., 1843), _Soldatenlieder_ (1851),

_Soldatenleben_ (1852), _Rheinleben_ (1865), and in his _Funfzig

Kinderlieder_, _Funfzig neue Kinderlieder_, and _Alte und neue

Kinderlieder_. His _Unpolitische Lieder_, _Deutsche Lieder aus der

Schweiz_ and _Streiflichter_ are not without poetical value, but they

are mainly interesting in relation to the movements of the age in

which they were written. As a student of ancient Teutonic literature

Hoffmann von Fallersleben ranks among the most persevering and

cultivated of German scholars, some of the chief results of his

labours being embodied in his _Horae Belgicae_, _Fundgruben fur

Geschichte deutscher Sprache und Literatur_, _Altdeutsche Blatter_,

_Spenden zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte_ and _Findlinge_. Among his

editions of particular works may be named _Reineke Vos_, _Monumenta

Elnonensia_ and _Theophilus_. _Die deutsche Philologie im Grundriss_

(1836) was at the time of its publication a valuable contribution to

philological research, and historians of German literature still

attach importance to his _Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenliedes bis

auf Luther_ (1832; 3rd ed., 1861), _Unsere volkstumlichen Lieder_ (3rd

ed., 1869) and _Die deutschen Gesellschaftslieder des 16. und 17.

Jahrh._ (2nd ed., 1860). In 1868-1870 Hoffmann published in 6 vols. an

autobiography, _Mein Leben: Aufzeichnungen und Erinnerungen_ (an

abbreviated ed. in 2 vols., 1894). His _Gesammelte Werke_ were edited

by H. Gerstenberg in 8 vols. (1891-1894); his _Ausgewahlte Werke_ by

H. Benzmann (1905, 4 vols.). See also _Briefe von Hoffmann von

Fallersleben und Moritz Haupt an Ferdinand Wolf_ (1874); J. M. Wagner,

_Hoffmann von Fallersleben, 1818-1868_ (1869-1870), and R. von

Gottschall, _Portrats und Studien_ (vol. v., 1876).

HOFFMANN, ERNST THEODOR WILHELM (1776-1822), German romance-writer, was

born at Konigsberg on the 24th of January 1776. For the name Wilhelm he

himself substituted Amadeus in homage to Mozart. His parents lived

unhappily together, and when the child was only three they separated.

His bringing up was left to an uncle who had neither understanding nor

sympathy for his dreamy and wayward temperament. Hoffmann showed more

talent for music and drawing than for books. In 1792, when little over

sixteen years old, he entered the university of Konigsberg, with a view

to preparing himself for a legal career. The chief features of interest

in his student years were an intimate friendship for Theodor Gottlieb

von Hippel (1775-1843), a nephew of the novelist Hippel, and an unhappy

passion for a lady to whom he gave music lessons; the latter found its

outlet, not merely in music, but also in two novels, neither of which he

was able to have published. In the summer of 1795 he began his practical

career as a jurist in Konigsberg, but his mother's death and the

complications in which his love-affair threatened to involve him made

him decide to leave his native town and continue his legal

apprenticeship in Glogau. In the autumn of 1798 he was transferred to

Berlin, where the beginnings of the new Romantic movement were in the

air. Music, however, had still the first place in his heart, and the

Berlin opera house was the chief centre of his interests.

In 1800 further promotion brought him to Posen, where he gave himself up

entirely to the pleasures of the hour. Unfortunately, however, his

brilliant powers of caricature brought him into ill odour, and instead

of receiving the hoped-for preferment in Posen itself, he found himself

virtually banished to the little town of Plozk on the Vistula. Before

leaving Posen he married, and his domestic happiness alleviated to some

extent the monotony of the two years' exile. His leisure was spent in

literary studies and musical composition. In 1804 he was transferred to

Warsaw, where, through J. E. Hitzig (1780-1849), he was introduced to

Zacharias Werner, and began to take an interest in the later Romantic

literature; now, for the first time, he discovered how writers like

Novalis, Tieck, and especially Wackenroder, had spoken out of his own

heart. But in spite of this literary stimulus, his leisure in Warsaw was

mainly occupied by composition; he wrote music to Brentano's _Lustige

Musikanten_ and Werner's _Kreuz an der Ostsee_, and also an opera _Liebe

und Eifersucht_, based on Calderon's drama _La Banda y la Flor_.

The arrival of the French in Warsaw and the consequent political changes

put an end to Hoffmann's congenial life there, and a time of tribulation

followed. A position which he obtained in 1808 as musical director of a

new theatre in Bamberg availed him little, as within a very short time

the theatre was bankrupt and Hoffmann again reduced to destitution. But

these misfortunes induced him to turn to literature in order to eke out

the miserable livelihood he earned by composing and giving music

lessons. The editor of the _Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung_ expressed

his willingness to accept contributions from Hoffmann, and here appeared

for the first time some of the musical sketches which ultimately passed

over into the _Phantasiestucke in Callots Manier_. This work appeared in

four volumes in 1814 and laid the foundation of his fame as a writer.

Meanwhile, Hoffmann had again been for some time attached, in the

capacity of musical director, to a theatrical company, whose

headquarters were at Dresden. In 1814 he gladly embraced the opportunity

that was offered him of resuming his legal profession in Berlin, and two

years later he was appointed councillor of the Court of Appeal

(_Kammergericht_). Hoffmann had the reputation of being an excellent

jurist and a conscientious official; he had leisure for literary

pursuits and was on the best of terms with the circle of Romantic poets

and novelists who gathered round Fouque, Chamisso and his old friend

Hitzig. Unfortunately, however, the habits of intemperance which, in

earlier years, had thrown a shadow over his life, grew upon him, and his

health was speedily undermined by the nights he spent in the wine-house,

in company unworthy of him. He was struck down by locomotor ataxy, and

died on the 24th of July 1822.

The _Phantasiestucke_, which had been published with a commendatory

preface by Jean Paul, were followed in 1816 by the gruesome novel--to

some extent inspired by Lewis's _Monk--Die Elixiere des Teufels_, and

the even more gruesome and grotesque stories which make up the

_Nachtstucke_ (1817, 2 vols.). The full range of Hoffmann's powers is

first clearly displayed in the collection of stories (4 vols.,

1819-1821) _Die Serapionsbruder_, this being the name of a small club of

Hoffmann's more intimate literary friends. _Die Serapionsbruder_

includes not merely stories in which Hoffmann's love for the mysterious

and the supernatural is to be seen, but novels in which he draws on his

own early reminiscences (_Rat Krespel_, _Fermate_), finely outlined

pictures of old German life (_Der Artushof_, _Meister Martin der Kufner

und seine Gesellen_), and vivid and picturesque incidents from Italian

and French history (_Doge und Dogaressa_, the story of Marino Faliero,

and _Das Fraulein von Scuderi_). The last-mentioned story is usually

regarded as Hoffmann's masterpiece. Two longer works also belong to

Hoffmann's later years and display to advantage his powers as a

humorist; these are _Klein Zaches, genannt Zinnober_ (1819), and

_Lebensansichten des Katers Murr, nebst fragmentarischer Biographie des

Kapellmeisters Johannes Kreisler_ (1821-1822).

Hoffmann is one of the master novelists of the Romantic movement in

Germany. He combined with a humour that reminds us of Jean Paul the warm

sympathy for the artist's standpoint towards life, which was enunciated

by early Romantic leaders like Tieck and Wackenroder; but he was

superior to all in the almost clairvoyant powers of his imagination. His

works abound in grotesque and gruesome scenes--in this respect they mark

a descent from the high ideals of the Romantic school; but the gruesome

was only one outlet for Hoffmann's genius, and even here the secret of

his power lay not in his choice of subjects, but in the wonderfully

vivid and realistic presentation of them. Every line he wrote leaves the

impression behind it that it expresses something felt or experienced;

every scene, vision or character he described seems to have been real

and living to him. It is this realism, in the best sense of the word,

that made him the great artist he was, and gave him so extraordinary a

power over his contemporaries.

The first collected edition of Hoffmann's works appeared in ten

volumes (_Ausgewahlte Schriften_, 1827-1828); to these his widow added

five volumes in 1839 (including the 3rd edition of J. E. Hitzig's _Aus

Hoffmanns Leben und Nachlass_, 1823). Other editions of his works

appeared in 1844-1845, 1871-1873, 1879-1883, and, most complete of

all, _Samtliche Werke_, edited by E. Grisebach, in 15 vols. (1900).

There are many editions of selections, as well as cheap reprints of

the more popular stories. All Hoffmann's important works--except

_Klein Zaches_ and _Kater Murr_--have been translated into English:

_The Devil's Elixir_ (1824), _The Golden Pot_ by Carlyle (in _German

Romance_, 1827), _The Serapion Brethren_ by A. Ewing (1886-1892), &c.

In France Hoffmann was even more popular than in England. Cp. G.

Thurau, _Hoffmanns Erzahlungen in Frankreich_ (1896). An edition of

his _Oeuvres completes_ appeared in 12 vols. in Paris in 1830. The

best monograph on Hoffmann is by G. Ellinger, _E. T. A. Hoffmann_

(1894); see also O. Klinke, _Hoffmanns Leben und Werke vom Standpunkte

eines Irrenarztes_ (1903); and the exhaustive bibliography in

Goedeke's _Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung_, 2nd ed.,

vol. viii. pp. 468 ff. (1905). (J. G. R.)

HOFFMANN, FRANCOIS BENOIT (1760-1828), French dramatist and critic, was

born at Nancy on the 11th of July 1760. He studied law at the university

of Strassburg, but a slight hesitation in his speech precluded success

at the bar, and he entered a regiment on service in Corsica. He served,

however, for a very short time, and, returning to Nancy, he wrote some

poems which brought him into notice at the little court of Luneville

over which the marquise de Boufflers then presided. In 1784 he went to

Paris, and two years later produced the opera _Phedre_. His opera

_Adrien_ (1792) was objected to by the government on political grounds,

and Hoffmann, who refused to make the changes proposed to him, ran

considerable risk under the revolutionary government. His later operas,

which were numerous, were produced at the Opera Comique. In 1807 he was

invited by Etienne to contribute to the _Journal de l'Empire_

(afterwards the _Journal des debats_). Hoffmann's wide reading qualified

him to write on all sorts of subjects, and he turned, apparently with no

difficulty, from reviewing books on medicine to violent attacks on the

Jesuits. His severe criticism of Chateaubriand's _Martyrs_ led the

author to make some changes in a later edition. He had the reputation of

being an absolutely conscientious and incorruptible critic and thus

exercised wide influence. Hoffmann died in Paris on the 25th of April

1828. Among his numerous plays should be mentioned an excellent one-act

comedy, _Le Roman d'une heure_ (1803), and an amusing one-act opera _Les

Rendez-vous bourgeois_.

See Sainte-Beuve, "M. de Feletz et la critique litteraire sous

l'Empire" in _Causeries du lundi_, vol. i.