[1] Sir Percy Fitzpatrick, in _The Transvaal from Within_, ch. iii.
KRUGERSDORP, a town of the Transvaal, 21 m. N.W. of Johannesburg by
rail. Pop. (1904), 20,073, of whom 6946 were whites. It is built on the
Witwatersrand at an elevation of 5709 ft. above the sea, and is a mining
centre of some importance. It is also the starting-point of a railway to
Zeerust and Mafeking. Krugersdorp was founded in 1887 at the time of the
discovery of gold on the Rand and is named after President Kruger.
Within the municipal area is the Paardekraal monument erected to
commemorate the victory gained by the Boers under Andries Pretorius in
1838 over the Zulu king Dingaan, and on the 16th of December each year,
kept as a public holiday, large numbers of Boers assemble at the
monument to celebrate the event. Here in December 1880 a great meeting
of Boers resolved again to proclaim the independence of the Transvaal.
The formal proclamation was made on Dingaan's Day, and after the defeat
of the British at Majuba Hill in 1881 that victory was also commemorated
at Paardekraal on the 16th of December. The monument, which was damaged
during the war of 1899-1902, was restored by the British authorities.
It was at Doornkop, near Krugersdorp, that Dr L. S. Jameson and his
"raiders" surrendered to Commandant Piet Cronje on the 2nd of January
1896 (see TRANSVAAL: _History_). At Sterkfontein, 8 m. N.W. of
Krugersdorp, are limestone caves containing beautiful stalactites.
KRUMAU (in Czech, _Krumlov_), is a town in Bohemia situated on the banks
of the Moldau (Vitava). It has about 8000 inhabitants, partly of Czech,
partly of German nationality. Krumau is principally celebrated because
its ancient castle was long the stronghold of the Rosenberg family,
known also as _pani z ruze_, the lords of the rose. Henry II. of
Rosenberg (d. 1310) was the first member of the family to reside at
Krumau. His son Peter I. (d. 1349) raised the place to the rank of a
city. The last two members of the family were two brothers, William,
created prince of Ursini-Rosenberg in 1556 (d. 1592), and Peter Vok, who
played a very large part in Bohemian history. Their librarian was
Wenceslas Brezan, who has left a valuable work on the annals of the
Rosenberg family. Peter Vok of Rosenberg, a strong adherent of the
Utraquist party, sold Krumau shortly before his death (1611), because
the Jesuits had established themselves in the neighbourhood.
The lordship, one of the most extensive in the monarchy, was bought by
the emperor Rudolph II. for his natural son, Julius of Austria. In 1622
the emperor Ferdinand II. presented the lordship to his minister, Hans
Ulrich von Eggenberg, and in 1625 raised it to the rank of an hereditary
duchy in his favour. From the Eggenberg family Krumau passed in 1719 to
Prince Adam Franz Karl of Schwarzenberg, who was created duke of Krumau
in 1723. The head of the Schwarzenberg family bears the title of duke of
Krumau. The castle, one of the largest and finest in Bohemia, preserves
much of its ancient character.
See W. Brezan, _Zivot Vilema z Rosenberka_ (Life of William of
Rosenberg), 1847; also _Zivot Petra Voka z Rosenberka_ (Life of Peter
Vok of Rosenberg), 1880.
KRUMBACHER, CARL (1856-1909), German Byzantine scholar, was born at
Kürnach in Bavaria on the 23rd of September 1856. He was educated at the
universities of Munich and Leipzig, and held the professorship of the
middle age and modern Greek language and literature in the former from
1897 to his death. His greatest work is his _Geschichte der
byzantinischen Litteratur_ (from Justinian to the fall of the Eastern
Empire, 1453), a second edition of which was published in 1897, with the
collaboration of A. Ehrhard (section on theology) and H. Gelzer (general
sketch of Byzantine history, A.D. 395-1453). The value of the work is
greatly enhanced by the elaborate bibliographies contained in the body
of the work and in a special supplement. Krumbacher also founded the
_Byzantinische Zeitschrift_ (1892) and the _Byzantinisches Archiv_
(1898). He travelled extensively and the results of a journey to Greece
appeared in his _Griechische Reise_ (1886). Other works by him are:
_Casia_ (1897), a treatise on a 9th-century Byzantine poetess, with the
fragments; _Michael Glykas_ (1894); "Die griechische Litteratur des
Mittelalters" in P. Hinneberg's _Die Kultur der Gegenwart_, i. 8 (1905);
_Das Problem der neugriechischen Schriftsprache_ (1902), in which he
strongly opposed the efforts of the purists to introduce the classical
style into modern Greek literature, and _Populäre Aufsätze_ (1909).
KRUMEN (KROOMEN, KROOBOYS, KRUS, or CROOS), a negro people of the West
Coast of Africa. They dwell in villages scattered along the coast of
Liberia from below Monrovia nearly to Cape Palmas. The name has been
wrongly derived from the English word "crew," with reference to the fact
that Krumen were the first West African people to take service in
European vessels. It is probably from Kraoh, the primitive name of one
of their tribes. Under Krumen are now grouped many kindred tribes, the
Grebo, Basa, Nifu, &c., who collectively number some 40,000. The Krus
proper live in the narrow strip of coast between the Sino river and Cape
Palmas, where are their five chief villages, Kruber, Little Kru, Settra
Kru, Nana Kru and King William's Town. They are traditionally from the
interior, but have long been noted as skilful seamen and daring
fishermen. They are a stout, muscular, broad-chested race, probably the
most robust of African peoples. They have true negro features--skin of a
blue-black hue and woolly and abundant hair. The women are of a lighter
shade than negro women generally, and in several respects come much
nearer to a European standard. Morally as well as physically the Krumen
are one of the most remarkable races in Africa. They are honest, brave,
proud, so passionately fond of freedom that they will starve or drown
themselves to escape capture, and have never trafficked in slaves.
Politically the Krus are divided into small commonwealths, each with an
hereditary chief whose duty is simply to represent the people in their
dealings with strangers. The real government is vested in the elders,
who wear as insignia iron rings on their legs. Their president, the head
fetish-man, guards the national symbols, and his house is sanctuary for
offenders till their guilt is proved. Personal property is held in
common by each family. Land also is communal, but the rights of the
actual cultivator cease only when he fails to farm it.
At 14 or 15 the Kru "boys" eagerly contract themselves for voyages of
twelve or eighteen months. Generally they prefer work near at home, and
are to be found on almost every ship trading on the Guinea coast. As
soon as they have saved enough to buy a wife they return home and settle
down. Krumen ornament their faces with tribal marks--black or blue lines
on the forehead and from ear to ear. They tattoo their arms and mutilate
the incisor teeth. As a race they are singularly intelligent, and
exhibit their enterprise in numerous settlements along the coast. Sierra
Leone, Grand Bassa and Monrovia all have their Kru towns. Dr Bleek
classifies the Kru language with the Mandingo family, and in this he is
followed by Dr R. G. Latham; Dr Kölle, who published a Kru grammar
(1854), considers it as distinct.
See A. de Quatrefages and E. T. Hamy, _Crania ethnica_, ix. 363
(1878-1879); Schlagintweit-Sakunlunski, in the _Sitzungsberichte_ of
the academy at Munich (1875); Nicholas, in _Bull. de la Soc.
d'Anthrop._ (Paris, 1872); J. Büttikofer, _Reisebilder aus Liberia_
(Leiden, 1890); Sir H. H. Johnston, _Liberia_ (London, 1906).
KRUMMACHER, FRIEDRICH ADOLF (1767-1845), German theologian, was born on
the 13th of July 1767 at Tecklenburg, Westphalia. Having studied
theology at Lingen and Halle, he became successively rector of the
grammar school at Mörs (1793), professor of theology at Duisburg (1800),
preacher at Crefeld, and afterwards at Kettwig, _Consistorialrath_ and
superintendent in Bernburg, and, after declining an invitation to the
university of Bonn, pastor of the Ansgariuskirche in Bremen (1824). He
died at Bremen on the 14th of April 1845. He was the author of many
religious works, but is best known by his _Parabeln_ (1805; 9th ed.
1876; Eng. trans. 1844).
A. W. Möller published his life and letters in 1849.
His brother GOTTFRIED DANIEL KRUMMACHER (1774-1837), who studied
theology at Duisburg and became pastor successively in Bärl (1798),
Wülfrath (1801) and Elberfeld (1816), was the leader of the "pietists"
of Wupperthal, and published several volumes of sermons, including one
entitled _Die Wanderungen Israels durch d. Wüste nach Kanaan_ (1834).
FRIEDRICH WILHELM KRUMMACHER (1796-1868), son of Friedrich Adolf,
studied theology at Halle and Jena, and became pastor successively at
Frankfort (1819), Ruhrort (1823), Gemarke, near Barmen in the Wupperthal
(1825), and Elberfeld (1834). In 1847 he received an appointment to the
Trinity Church in Berlin, and in 1853 he became court chaplain at
Potsdam. He was an influential promoter of the Evangelical Alliance. His
best-known works are _Elias der Thisbiter_ (1828-1833; 6th ed. 1874;
Eng. trans. 1838); _Elisa_ (1837) and _Das Passionsbuch, der leidende
Christus_ (1854, in _English The Suffering Saviour_, 1870). His
_Autobiography_ was published in 1869 (Eng. trans. 1871).
EMIL WILHELM KRUMMACHER (1798-1886), another son, was born at Mörs in
1798. In 1841 he became pastor in Duisburg. He wrote, amongst other
works, _Herzensmanna aus Luthers Werken_ (1852). His son Hermann
(1828-1890), who was appointed _Consistorialrath_ in Stettin in 1877,
was the author of _Deutsches Leben in Nordamerika_ (1874).
KRUPP, ALFRED (1812-1887), German metallurgist, was born at Essen on the
26th of April 1812. His father, Friedrich Krupp (1787-1826), had
purchased a small forge in that town about 1810, and devoted himself to
the problem of manufacturing cast steel; but though that product was put
on the market by him in 1815, it commanded but little sale, and the firm
was far from prosperous. After his death the works were carried on by
his widow, and Alfred, as the eldest son, found himself obliged, a boy
of fourteen, to leave school and undertake their direction. For many
years his efforts met with little success, and the concern, which in
1845 employed only 122 workmen, did scarcely more than pay its way. But
in 1847 Krupp made a 3 pdr. muzzle-loading gun of cast steel, and at the
Great Exhibition of London in 1851 he exhibited a solid flawless ingot
of cast steel weighing 2 tons. This exhibit caused a sensation in the
industrial world, and the Essen works sprang into fame. Another
successful invention, the manufacture of weldless steel tires for
railway vehicles, was introduced soon afterwards. The profits derived
from these and other steel manufactures were devoted to the expansion of
the works and to the development of the artillery with which the name of
Krupp is especially associated (see ORDNANCE). The model settlement,
which is one of the best-known features of the Krupp works, was started
in the 'sixties, when difficulty began to be found in housing the
increasing number of workmen; and now there are various "colonies,"
practically separate villages, dotted about to the south and south-west
of the town, with schools, libraries, recreation grounds, clubs, stores,
&c. The policy also was adopted of acquiring iron and coal mines, so
that the firm might have command of supplies of the raw material
required for its operations. Alfred Krupp, who was known as the "Cannon
King," died at Essen on the 14th of July 1887, and was succeeded by his
only son, Friedrich Alfred Krupp (1854-1902), who was born at Essen on
the 17th of February 1854. The latter devoted himself to the financial
rather than to the technical side of the business, and under him it
again underwent enormous expansion. Among other things he in 1896 leased
the "Germania" ship-building yard at Kiel, and in 1902 it passed into
the complete ownership of the firm. In the latter year, which was also
the year of his death, on the 22nd of November, the total number of men
employed at Essen and its associated works was over 40,000. His elder
daughter Bertha, who succeeded him, was married in October 1906 to Dr
Gustav von Bohlen und Halbach, who on that occasion received the right
to bear the name Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach. The enormous increase in
the German navy involved further expansion in the operations of the
Krupp firm as manufacturers of the armour plates and guns required for
the new ships, and in 1908 its capital, then standing at £9,000,000, was
augmented by £2,500,000.
KRUSENSTERN, ADAM IVAN (1770-1846), Russian navigator, hydrographer and
admiral, was born at Haggud in Esthonia on the 19th of November 1770. In
1785 he entered the corps of naval cadets, after leaving which, in 1788,
with the grade of midshipman, he served in the war against Sweden.
Having been appointed to serve in the British fleet for several years
(1793-1799), he visited America, India and China. After publishing a
paper pointing out the advantages of direct communication between Russia
and China by Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope, he was appointed by
the emperor Alexander I. to make a voyage to the east coast of Asia to
endeavour to carry out the project. Two English ships were bought, in
which the expedition left Kronstadt in August 1803 and proceeded by Cape
Horn and the Sandwich Islands to Kamchatka, and thence to Japan.
Returning to Europe by the Cape of Good Hope, after an extended series
of explorations, Krusenstern reached Kronstadt in August 1806, his being
the first Russian expedition to circumnavigate the world. The emperor
conferred several honours upon him, and he ultimately became admiral. As
director of the Russian naval school Krusenstern did much useful work.
He was also a member of the scientific committee of the marine
department, and his contrivance for counteracting the influence of the
iron in vessels on the compass was adopted in the navy. He died at Reval
on the 24th of August 1846.
Krusenstern's _Voyage Round the World in 1803-1806_ was published at
St Petersburg in 1810-1814, in 3 vols., with folio atlas of 104 plates
and maps (Eng. ed., 2 vols. 1813; French ed., 2 vols., and atlas of 30
plates, 1820). His narrative contains a good many important
discoveries and rectifications, especially in the region of Japan, and
the contributions made by the various savants were of much scientific
importance. A valuable work is his _Atlas de l'Océan Pacifique_, with
its accompanying _Recueil des mémoires hydrographiques_ (St
Petersburg, 1824-1827). See _Memoir_ by his daughter, Madame Charlotte
Bernhardi, translated by Sir John Ross (1856).
KRUSHEVATS (or KRUSEVAC), a town of Servia, lying in a fertile region of
hills and dales near the right bank of the Servian Morava. Pop. (1900),
about 10,000. Krushevats is the capital of a department bearing the same
name, and has an active trade in tobacco, hemp, flax, grain and
livestock, for the sale of which it possesses about a dozen markets. It
was in Krushevats that the last Servian tsar, Lazar, assembled his army
to march against the Turks, and lose his empire, at Kosovo, in 1389. The
site of his palace is marked by a ruined enclosure containing a fragment
of the tower of Queen Militsa, whither, according to legend, tidings of
the defeat were brought her by crows from the battlefield. Within the
enclosure stands a church, dating from the reign of Stephen Dushan
(1336-1356), with beautiful rose windows and with imperial peacocks,
dragons and eagles sculptured on the walls. Several old Turkish houses
were left at the beginning of the 20th century, besides an ancient
Turkish fountain and bath.
KSHATTRIYA, one of the four original Indian castes, the other three
being the Brahman, the Vaisya and the Sudra. The Kshattriya was the
warrior caste, and their function was to protect the people and abstain
from sensual pleasures. On the rise of Brahmin ascendancy the
Kshattriyas were repressed, and their consequent revolt gave rise to
Buddhism and Jainism, the founders of both these religions belonging to
the Kshattriya caste. Though, according to tradition, the Kshattriyas
were all exterminated by Parasurama, the rank is now conceded to the
modern Rajputs, and also to the ruling families of native states. (See
CASTE.)
KUBAN, a river of southern Russia, rising on the W. slope of the Elbruz,
in the Caucasus, at an altitude of 13,930 ft., races down the N. face of
the Caucasus as a mountain-torrent, but upon getting down to the
lower-lying steppe country S. of Stavropol it turns, at 1075 ft.
altitude, towards the N.W., and eventually, assuming a westerly course,
enters the Gulf of Kyzyl-tash, on the Black Sea, in the vicinity of the
Straits of Kerch. Its lower course lies for some distance through
marshes, where in times of overflow its breadth increases from the
normal 700 ft. to over half a mile. Its total length is 500 m., the area
of its basin 21,480 sq. m. It is navigable for steamers for 73 m., as
far as the confluence of its tributary, the Laba (200 m. long). This,
like its other affluents, the Byelaya (155 m.), Urup, and Great and
Little Zelenchuk, joins it from the left. The Kuban is the ancient
Hypanis and Vardanes and the Pshishche of the Circassians.
KUBAÑ, a province of Russian Caucasia, having the Sea of Azov on the W.,
the territory of Don Cossacks on the N., the government of Stavropol and
the province of Terek on the E., and the government of Kutais and the
Black Sea district on the S. and S.W. It thus contains the low and
marshy lowlands on the Sea of Azov, the western portion of the fertile
steppes of northern Caucasia, and the northern slopes of the Caucasus
range from its north-west extremity to the Elbruz. The area is 36,370
sq. m. On the south the province includes the parallel ranges of the
Black Mountains (Kara-dagh), 3000 to 6000 ft. high, which are
intersected by gorges that grow deeper and wider as the main range is
approached. Owing to a relatively wet climate and numerous streams,
these mountains are densely clothed with woods, under the shadow of
which a thick undergrowth of rhododendrons, "Caucasian palms" (_Buxus
sempervirens_), ivy, clematis, &c., develops, so as to render the
forests almost impassable. These cover altogether nearly 20% of the
aggregate area. Wide, treeless plains, from 1000 to 2000 ft. high,
stretch north of the Kubañ, and are profusely watered by that river and
its many tributaries--the Little and Great Zelenchuk, Urup, Laba,
Byelaya, Pshish--mountain torrents that rush through narrow gorges from
the Caucasus range. In its lower course the Kubañ forms a wide, low
delta, covered with rushes, haunted by wild boar, and very unhealthy.
The same characteristics mark the low plains on the east of the Sea of
Azov, dotted over with numerous semi-stagnant lakes. Malaria is the
enemy of these regions, and is especially deadly on the Tamañ Peninsula,
as also along the left bank of the lower and middle Kubañ.
There is considerable mineral wealth. Coal is found on the Kubañ and its
tributaries, but its extraction is still insignificant (less than 10,000
tons per annum). Petroleum wells exist in the district of Maikop, but
the best are in the Tamañ Peninsula, where they range over 570 sq. m.
Iron ores, silver and zinc are found; alabaster is extracted, as also
some salt, soda and Epsom salts. The best mineral waters are at Psekup
and Tamañ, where there are also numbers of mud volcanoes, ranging from
small hillocks to hills 365 ft. high and more. The soil is very fertile
in the plains, parts of which consist of black earth and are being
rapidly populated.
The population reached 1,928,419 in 1897, of whom 1,788,622 were
Russians, 13,926 Armenians, 20,137 Greeks and 20,778 Germans. There were
at the same date 945,873 women, and only 156,486 people lived in towns.
The estimated population in 1906 was 2,275,400. The aborigines were
represented by 100,000 Circassians, 5000 Nogai Tatars and some Ossetes.
The Circassians or Adyghe, who formerly occupied the mountain valleys,
were compelled, after the Russian conquest in 1861, either to settle on
the flat land or to emigrate; those who refused to move voluntarily were
driven across the mountains to the Black Sea coast. Most of them (nearly
200,000) emigrated to Turkey, where they formed the Bashi-bazouks.
Peasants from the interior provinces of Russia occupied the plains of
the Kubañ, and they now number over 1,000,000, while the Kubañ Cossacks
in 1897 numbered 804,372 (405,428 women). In point of religion 90% of
the population were in 1897 members of the Orthodox Greek Church, 4%
Raskolniks and other Christians and 5.4% Mahommedans, the rest being
Jews.
Wheat is by far the chief crop (nearly three-quarters of the total area
under crops are under wheat); rye, oats, barley, millet, Indian corn,
some flax and potatoes, as also tobacco, are grown. Agricultural
machinery is largely employed, and the province is a reserve granary for
Russia. Livestock, especially sheep, is kept in large numbers on the
steppes. Bee-keeping is general, and gardening and vine-growing are
spreading rapidly. Fishing in the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, as also in
the Kubañ, is important.
Two main lines of railway intersect the province, one running N.W. to
S.E., from Rostov to Vladikavkaz, and another starting from the former
south-westwards to Novorossiysk on the north coast of the Black Sea. The
province is divided into seven districts, the chief towns of which, with
their populations in 1897, are Ekaterinodar, capital of the province
(65,697), Anapa (6676), Labinsk (6388), Batalpashinsk (8100), Maikop
(34,191), Temryuk (14,476) and Yeisk (35,446).
The history of the original settlements of the various native tribes,
and their language and worship before the introduction of Mahommedanism,
remain a blank page in the legends of the Caucasus. The peninsula of
Tamañ, a land teeming with relics of ancient Greek colonists, has been
occupied successively by the Cimmerians, Sarmatians, Khazars, Mongols
and other nations. The Genoese, who established an extensive trade in
the 13th century, were expelled by the Turks in 1484, and in 1784 Russia
obtained by treaty the entire peninsula and the territory on the right
bank of the Kubañ, the latter being granted by Catherine II. in 1792 to
the Cossacks of the Dnieper. Then commenced the bloody struggle with
the Circassians, which continued for more than half a century. Not only
domestic, but even field work, is conducted mostly by the women, who are
remarkable for their physical strength and endurance. The native
mountaineers, known under the general name of Circassians, but locally
distinguished as the Karachai, Abadsikh, Khakuchy, Shapsugh, have
greatly altered their mode of life since the pacification of the
Caucasus, still, however, maintaining Mahommedanism, speaking their
vernacular, and strictly observing the customs of their ancestors.
Exports include wheat, tobacco, leather, wool, petroleum, timber, fish,
salt and live cattle; imports, dry goods, grocery and hardware. Local
industry is limited to a few tanneries, petroleum refineries and spirit
distilleries. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
KUBELIK, JAN (1880- ), Bohemian violinist, was born near Prague, of
humble parentage. He learnt the violin from childhood, and appeared in
public at Prague in 1888, subsequently being trained at the
Conservatorium by the famous teacher Ottakar Sevcik. From him he learnt
an extraordinary technique, and from 1898 onwards his genius was
acclaimed at concerts throughout Europe. He first appeared in London in
1900, and in America in 1901, creating a _furore_ everywhere. In 1903 he
married the Countess Czaky Szell.
KUBERA (or KUVERA), in Hindu mythology, the god of wealth. Originally he
appears as king of the powers of evil, a kind of Pluto. His home is
Alaka in Mount Kailasa, and his garden, the world's treasure-house, is
Chaitraratha, on Mount Mandara. Kubera is half-brother to the demon
Ravana, and was driven from Ceylon by the latter.
KUBLAI KHAN (or KAAN, as the supreme ruler descended from Jenghiz was
usually distinctively termed in the 13th century) (1216-1294), the most
eminent of the successors of Jenghiz (Chinghiz), and the founder of the
Mongol dynasty in China. He was the second son of Tule, youngest of the
four sons of Jenghiz by his favourite wife. Jenghiz was succeeded in the
khanship by his third son Okkodai, or Ogdai (1229), he by his son Kuyuk
(1246), and Kuyuk by Mangu, eldest son of Tule (1252). Kublai was born
in 1216, and, young as he was, took part with his younger brother Hulagu
(afterwards conqueror of the caliph and founder of the Mongol dynasty in
Persia) in the last campaign of Jenghiz (1226-27). The Mongol poetical
chronicler, Sanang Setzen, records a tradition that Jenghiz himself on
his death-bed discerned young Kublai's promise and predicted his
distinction.
Northern China, Cathay as it was called, had been partially conquered by
Jenghiz himself, and the conquest had been followed up till the Kin or
"golden" dynasty of Tatars, reigning at K'ai-feng Fu on the Yellow
River, were completely subjugated (1234). But China south of the
Yangtsze-kiang remained many years later subject to the native dynasty
of Sung, reigning at the great city of Lingan, or Kinsai (_King-sz'_,
"capital"), now known as Hang-chow Fu. Operations to subdue this region
had commenced in 1235, but languished till Mangu's accession. Kublai was
then named his brother's lieutenant in Cathay, and operations were
resumed. By what seems a vast and risky strategy, of which the motives
are not quite clear, the first campaign of Kublai was directed to the
subjugation of the remote western province of Yunnan. After the capture
of Tali Fu (well known in recent years as the capital of a Mahommedan
insurgent sultan), Kublai returned north, leaving the war in Yunnan to a
trusted general. Some years later (1257) the khan Mangu himself entered
on a campaign in west China, and died there, before Ho-chow in
Sze-ch'uen (1259).
Kublai assumed the succession, but it was disputed by his brother
Arikbugha and by his cousin Kaidu, and wars with these retarded the
prosecution of the southern conquest. Doubtless, however, this was
constantly before Kublai as a great task to be accomplished, and its
fulfilment was in his mind when he selected as the future capital of his
empire the Chinese city that we now know as Peking. Here, in 1264, to
the north-east of the old city, which under the name of Yenking had been
an occasional residence of the Kin sovereigns, he founded his new
capital, a great rectangular plot of 18 m. in circuit. The (so-called)
"Tatar city" of modern Peking is the city of Kublai, with about
one-third at the north cut off, but Kublai's walls are also on this
retrenched portion still traceable.
The new city, officially termed T'ai-tu ("great court"), but known among
the Mongols and western people as Kaan-baligh ("city of the khan") was
finished in 1267. The next year war against the Sung Empire was resumed,
but was long retarded by the strenuous defence of the twin cities of
Siang-yang and Fan-cheng, on opposite sides of the river Han, and
commanding two great lines of approach to the basin of the
Yangtsze-kiang. The siege occupied nearly five years. After this Bayan,
Kublai's best lieutenant, a man of high military genius and noble
character, took command. It was not, however, till 1276 that the Sung
capital surrendered, and Bayan rode into the city (then probably the
greatest in the world) as its conqueror. The young emperor, with his
mother, was sent prisoner to Kaan-baligh; but two younger princes had
been despatched to the south before the fall of the city, and these
successively were proclaimed emperor by the adherents of the native
throne. An attempt to maintain their cause was made in Fu-kien, and
afterwards in the province of Kwang-tung; but in 1279 these efforts were
finally extinguished, and the faithful minister who had inspired them
terminated the struggle by jumping with his young lord into the sea.
Even under the degenerate Sung dynasty the conquest of southern China
had occupied the Mongols during half a century of intermittent
campaigns. But at last Kublai was ruler of all China, and probably the
sovereign (at least nominally) of a greater population than had ever
acknowledged one man's supremacy. For, though his rule was disputed by
the princes of his house in Turkestan, it was acknowledged by those on
the Volga, whose rule reached to the frontier of Poland, and by the
family of his brother Hulagu, whose dominion extended from the Oxus to
the Arabian desert. For the first time in history the name and character
of an emperor of China were familiar as far west as the Black Sea and
not unknown in Europe. The Chinese seals which Kublai conferred on his
kinsmen reigning at Tabriz are stamped upon their letters to the kings
of France, and survive in the archives of Paris. Adventurers from
Turkestan, Persia, Armenia, Byzantium, even from Venice, served him as
ministers, generals, governors, envoys, astronomers or physicians;
soldiers from all Asia to the Caucasus fought his battles in the south
of China. Once in his old age (1287) Kublai was compelled to take the
field in person against a serious revolt, raised by Nayan, a prince of
his family, who held a vast domain on the borders of Manchuria. Nayan
was taken and executed. The revolt had been stirred up by Kaidu, who
survived his imperial rival, and died in 1301. Kublai himself died in
1294, at the age of seventy-eight.
Though a great figure in Asiatic history, and far from deserving a niche
in the long gallery of Asiatic tyrants, Kublai misses a record in the
short list of the good rulers. His historical locus was a happy one,
for, whilst he was the first of his race to rise above the innate
barbarism of the Mongols, he retained the force and warlike character of
his ancestors, which vanished utterly in the effeminacy of those who
came after him. He had great intelligence and a keen desire for
knowledge, with apparently a good deal of natural benevolence and
magnanimity. But his love of splendour, and his fruitless expeditions
beyond sea, created enormous demands for money, and he shut his eyes to
the character and methods of those whom he employed to raise it. A
remarkable narrative of the oppressions of one of these, Ahmed of
Fenaket, and of the revolt which they provoked, is given by Marco Polo,
in substantial accordance with the Chinese annals.
Kublai patronized Chinese literature and culture generally. The great
astronomical instruments which he caused to be made were long preserved
at Peking, but were carried off to Berlin in 1900. Though he put hardly
any Chinese into the first ranks of his administration, he attached many
to his confidence, and was personally popular among them. Had his
endeavour to procure European priests for the instruction of his
people, of which we know through Marco Polo, prospered, the Roman
Catholic church, which gained some ground under his successors, might
have taken stronger root in China. Failing this momentary effort, Kublai
probably saw in the organized force of Tibetan Buddhism the readiest
instrument in the civilization of his countrymen, and that system
received his special countenance. An early act of his reign had been to
constitute a young lama of intelligence and learning the head of the
Lamaite Church, and eventually also prince of Tibet, an act which may be
regarded as a precursory form of the rule of the "grand lamas" of Lassa.
The same ecclesiastic, Mati Dhwaja, was employed by Kublai to devise a
special alphabet for use with the Mongol language. It was chiefly based
on Tibetan forms of Nagari; some coins and inscriptions in it are
extant; but it had no great vogue, and soon perished. Of the splendour
of his court and entertainments, of his palaces, summer and winter, of
his great hunting expeditions, of his revenues and extraordinary paper
currency, of his elaborate system of posts and much else, an account is
given in the book of Marco Polo, who passed many years in Kublai's
service.
We have alluded to his foreign expeditions, which were almost all
disastrous. Nearly all arose out of a hankering for the nominal
extension of his empire by claiming submission and tribute. Expeditions
against Japan were several times repeated; the last, in 1281, on an
immense scale, met with huge discomfiture. Kublai's preparations to
avenge it were abandoned owing to the intense discontent which they
created. In 1278 he made a claim of submission upon Champa, an ancient
state representing what we now call Cochin China. This eventually led to
an attempt to invade the country through Tongking, and to a war with the
latter state, in which the Mongols had much the worst of it. War with
Burma (or Mien, as the Chinese called it) was provoked in very similar
fashion, but the result was more favourable to Kublai's arms. The
country was overrun as far as the Irrawaddy delta, the ancient capital,
Pagan, with its magnificent temples, destroyed, and the old royal
dynasty overthrown. The last attempt of the kind was against Java, and
occurred in the last year of the old khan's reign. The envoy whom he had
commissioned to claim homage was sent back with ignominy. A great
armament was equipped in the ports of Fu-kien to avenge this insult; but
after some temporary success the force was compelled to re-embark with a
loss of 3000 men. The death of Kublai prevented further action.
Some other expeditions, in which force was not used, gratified the
khan's vanity by bringing back professions of homage, with presents, and
with the curious reports of foreign countries in which Kublai delighted.
Such expeditions extended to the states of southern India, to eastern
Africa, and even to Madagascar.
Of Kublai's twelve legitimate sons, Chingkim, the favourite and
designated successor, died in 1284/5; and Timur, the son of Chingkim,
took his place. No great king arose in the dynasty after Kublai. He had
in all nine successors of his house on the throne of Kaan-baligh, but
the long and imbecile reign of the ninth, Toghon Timur, ended (1368) in
disgrace and expulsion and the native dynasty of Ming reigned in their
stead. (H. Y.)
KUBUS, a tribe inhabiting the central parts of Sumatra. They are nomadic
savages living entirely in the forests in shelters of branches and
leaves built on platforms. It has been suggested that they represent a
Sumatran aboriginal race; but Dr J. G. Garson, reporting on Kubu skulls
and skeletons submitted to him by Mr. H. O. Forbes, declared them
decidedly Malay, though the frizzle in the hair might indicate a certain
mixture of negrito blood (_Jour. Anthrop. Instit._, April 1884). They
are of a rich olive-brown tint, their hair jet black and inclined to
curl, and, though not dwarfs, are below the average height.
KUCHAN, a fertile and populous district of the province Khorasan in
Persia, bounded N. by the Russian Transcaspian territory, W. by Bujnurd,
S. by Isfaraïn, and extending in the E. to near Radkan. Its area is
about 3000 sq. m. and its population, principally composed of Zafaranlu
Kurds, descendants of tribes settled there by Shah Abbas I. in the 17th
century, is estimated at 100,000. About 3000 families are nomads and
live in tents. The district produces much grain, 25,000 to 30,000 tons
yearly, and contains two towns, Kuchan and Shirvan (pop. 6000), and many
villages.
KUCHAN, the capital of the district, has suffered much from the effects
of earthquakes, notably in 1875, 1894 and 1895. The last earthquake laid
the whole town in ruins and caused considerable loss of life. About 8000
of the survivors removed to a site 7½ m. E. and there built a new town
named Nasseriyeh after Nasr-ud-din Shah, but known better as Kuchan i
jadid, i.e. New Kuchan, and about 1000 remained in the ruined city in
order to be near their vineyards and gardens. The geographical position
of the old town is 37° 8´ N., 58° 25´ E., elevation 4100 ft. The new
town has been regularly laid out with broad streets and spacious
bazaars, and, situated as it is half-way between Meshed and Askabad on
the cart-road connecting those two places, has much trade. Its
population is estimated at 10,000. There are telegraph and post offices.
KUCH BEHAR, or COOCH BEHAR, a native state of India, in Bengal,
consisting of a submontane tract, not far from Darjeeling, entirely
surrounded by British territory. Area, 1307 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 566,974;
estimated revenue, £140,000. The state forms a level plain of triangular
shape, intersected by numerous rivers. The greater portion is fertile
and well cultivated, but tracts of jungle are to be seen in the
north-east corner, which abuts upon Assam. The soil is uniform in
character throughout, consisting of a light, friable loam, varying in
depth from 6 in. to 3 ft., superimposed upon a deep bed of sand. The
whole is detritus, washed down by torrents from the neighbouring
Himalayas. The rivers all pass through the state from north to south, to
join the main stream of the Brahmaputra. Some half-dozen are navigable
for small trading boats throughout the year, and are nowhere fordable;
and there are about twenty minor streams which become navigable only
during the rainy season. The streams have a tendency to cut new channels
for themselves after every annual flood, and they communicate with one
another by cross-country watercourses. Rice is grown on three-fourths of
the cultivated area. Jute and tobacco are also largely grown for export.
The only special industries are the weaving of a strong silk obtained
from worms fed on the castor-oil plant, and of a coarse jute cloth used
for screens and bedding. The external trade is chiefly in the hands of
Marwari immigrants from Rajputana. Among other improvements a railway
has been constructed, with the assistance of a loan from the British
government. The earthquake of the 12th of June 1897 caused damage to
public buildings, roads, &c., in the state to the estimated amount of
£100,000.
The Koch or Rajbansi, from which the name of the state is derived, are a
widely spread tribe, evidently of aboriginal descent, found throughout
all northern Bengal, from Purnea district to the Assam valley. They are
akin to the Indo-Chinese races of the north-east frontier; but they have
now become largely hinduized, especially in their own home, where the
appellation "Koch" has come to be used as a term of reproach. Their
total number in all India was returned in 1901 as nearly 2½ millions.
As in the case of many other small native states, the royal family of
Kuch Behar lays claim to a divine origin in order to conceal an impure
aboriginal descent. The greatest monarch of the dynasty was Nar Narayan,
the son of Visu Singh, who began to reign about 1550. He conquered the
whole of Kamrup, built temples in Assam, of which ruins still exist
bearing inscriptions with his name, and extended his power southwards
over what is now part of the British districts of Rangpur and Purnea.
His son, Lakshmi Narayan, who succeeded him in Kuch Behar, became
tributary to the Mogul Empire. In 1772 a competitor for the throne,
having been driven out of the country by his rivals, applied for
assistance to Warren Hastings. A detachment of sepoys was accordingly
marched into the state; the Bhutias, whose interference had led to this
intervention, were expelled, and forced to sue for peace through the
mediation of the lama of Tibet. By the treaty made on this occasion,
April 1773, the raja acknowledged subjection to the Company, and made
over to it one-half of his annual revenues. In 1863, on the death of the
raja, leaving a son and heir only ten months old, a British commissioner
was appointed to undertake the direct management of affairs during the
minority of the prince, and many important reforms were successfully
introduced. The maharaja Sir Nripendra Narayan, G.C.I.E., born in 1862,
was educated under British guardianship at Patna and Calcutta, and
became hon. lieutenant-colonel of the 6th Bengal Cavalry. In 1897-98 he
served in the Tirah campaign on the staff of General Yeatman-Biggs, and
received the distinction of a C.B. He was present at the Jubilee in
1887, the Diamond Jubilee of 1897, and King Edward's Coronation in 1902,
and became a well-known figure in London society. In 1878 he married a
daughter of Keshub Chunder Sen, the Brahmo leader. His eldest son was
educated in England.
The town of Kuch Behar is situated on the river Tursa, and has a railway
station. Pop. (1901), 10,458. It contains a college affiliated to the
Calcutta University.
KUDU (_koodoo_), the native name for a large species of African antelope
(q.v.), with large corkscrew-like horns in the male, and the body marked
with narrow vertical white lines in both sexes. The female is hornless.
_Strepsiceros capensis_ (or _S. strepsiceros_) is the scientific name of
the true kudu, which ranges from the Cape to Somaliland; but there is
also a much smaller species (_S. imberbis_) in East and North-East
Africa.
[Illustration: Male Kudu.]
KUENEN, ABRAHAM (1828-1891), Dutch Protestant theologian, the son of an
apothecary, was born on the 16th of September 1828, at Haarlem, North
Holland. On his father's death it became necessary for him to leave
school and take a humble place in the business. By the generosity of
friends he was educated at the gymnasium at Haarlem and afterwards at the
university of Leiden. He studied theology, and won his doctor's degree by
an edition of thirty-four chapters of Genesis from the Arabic version of
the Samaritan Pentateuch. In 1853 he became professor extraordinarius of
theology at Leiden, and in 1855 full professor. He married a daughter of
W. Muurling, one of the founders of the Gröningen school, which made the
first pronounced breach with Calvinistic theology in the Reformed Church
of Holland. Kuenen himself soon became one of the main supports of the
modern theology, of which J. N. Scholten (1811-1885) and Karel Willem
Opzoomer (b. 1821) were the chief founders, and of which Leiden became
the headquarters. His first great work, an historico-critical
introduction to the Old Testament, _Historisch-kritisch onderzoek naar
het onstaan en de verzameling van de boeken des Ouden Verbonds_ (3 vols.,
1861-1865; 2nd ed., 1885-1893; German by T. Weber and C. T. Müller,
1885-1894), followed the lines of the dominant school of Heinrich Ewald.
But before long he came under the influence of J. W. Colenso, and learned
to regard the prophetic narrative of Genesis, Exodus, and Numbers as
older than what was by the Germans denominated _Grundschrift_ ("Book of
Origins"). In 1869-1870 he published his book on the religion of Israel,
_De godsdienst van Israël tot den ondergang van der Joodschen Staat_
(Eng. trans., 1874-1875). This was followed in 1875 by a study of Hebrew
prophecy, _De profeten en de profetie onder Israel_ (Eng. trans., 1877),
largely polemical in its scope, and specially directed against those who
rest theological dogmas on the fulfilment of prophecy. In 1882 Kuenen
went to England to deliver a course of Hibbert lectures, _National
Religions and Universal Religion_; in the following year he presided at
the congress of Orientalists held at Leiden. In 1886 his volume on the
Hexateuch was published in England. He died at Leiden on the 10th of
December 1891.
Kuenen was also the author of many articles, papers and reviews; a
series on the Hexateuch, which appeared in the _Theologisch
Tijdschrift_, of which in 1866 he became joint editor, is one of the
finest products of modern criticism. His collected works were
translated into German and published by K. Budde in 1894. Several of
his works have been translated into English by Philip Wicksteed. See
the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_.
KUEN-LUN, or KWEN-LUN, a term used to designate generally the mountain
ranges which run along the northern edge of the great Tibetan plateau in
Central Asia. In a wider application it means the succession of ranges
which extend from the Pamirs on the W. to 113° E., until it strikes
against or merges in the steep escarpments of the S.E. flank of the
Mongolian plateau. In the narrower acceptation it applies only to those
ranges which part the desert of Takla-makan on the N. from the Tibetan
plateau on the S. between the Pamirs and the transverse glen of the
Kara-muren, that is, nearly to the longitude of the town of Cherchen
(about 85½° E.). Although the use of the name is thus restricted in
geographical usage, the mountain system so designated does, as a fact,
extend eastwards as far as the great depression of Tsaidam (say 95° E.),
though it is uncertain whether its direct orographical continuation
eastwards is to be identified with the Astin-tagh, or, as F. Grenard and
K. Bogdanovich believe--and with them Sven Hedin is inclined to
agree--with the parallel ranges of Kalta-alaghan and Arka-tagh, which
lie S. of the Astin-tagh. At any rate the Astin-tagh, whether it is the
principal continuation of the Kuen-lun or only a subsidiary flanking
system, is itself the westward continuation of the Nan-shan or Southern
Mountains, which reach down far into China (to 113° E.).
Taken in its widest meaning, the Kuen-lun Mountains thus stretch in a
wavy line for nearly 2500 m. from E. to W., and while in the W. their
constituent ranges are folded and squeezed by lateral compression into a
breadth of some 150-200 m., their summits being forced up to
correspondingly higher altitudes, in the E. they spread out to a breadth
of some 600 m., the ranges being in that quarter less folded, and
consequently both flatter and lower. In the tectonic structure of Asia
the Kuen-lun forms, as it were, the backbone of the continent. In point
of age it is very much older than either the Himalayas to the S. or the
Tian-shan to the N. But although the crests of its component ranges
reach altitudes of 21,500 to 22,000 ft., they are not as a rule
overtopped by individual peaks of commanding and towering elevation, as
the Himalayas are, but run on the whole tolerably uniform and relatively
at little greater altitude than the lofty valleys which separate them
one from another. It is a strikingly marked characteristic of the
northern edge of the Tibetan plateau that its outermost border-range
(e.g. Western Kuen-lun and Astin-tagh) is throughout double; and this
"twinning" of the mountain-ranges, as also of the intermont lake-basins
among the Kuen-lun ranges, is a peculiar feature of the Tibetan plateau.
The supreme orographic importance of this great Central Asian mountain
system was recognized in a fashion even by the geographers of ancient
Greece. They used to suppose that an immense range of mountains
crossed Asia from west to east on the parallel of the island of
Rhodes, extending through Asia Minor, the Kurdish highlands, the N. of
Persia, the N. of Bactria (Afghanistan), the Hindu-kush, and so on
into China. This long range they supposed to separate the waters which
flow N. to the Arctic from those which flow S. to the Indian Ocean. K.
Ritter (_Asien_, ii.) was the first of modern geographers to recognize
the true character of the Kuen-lun as a border range of the Tibetan
plateau; and Baron von Richthofen (_China_, i. 1876) still further
defined and accentuated the conception of the system by representing
it as a complex arrangement of several parallel ranges, running in
wavy lines from the Pamirs (76° E.) eastwards to 118° E. But though
von Richthofen's general conception of the Kuen-lun system was broadly
sound and in accordance with facts, the details both of his
description and of that of his pupil Wegener[1] require now very
considerable revision, and need even to be in part recast, as a
consequence of explorations and investigations made since they wrote
by, amongst others, the Russian explorers N. M. Przhevalsky, M. V.
Pyevtsov, V. I. Roboroysky, P. K. Kozlov, K. Bogdanovich, V. A.
Obruchev, and (?) Skassi; by the Englishmen A. D. Carey, A. Dalgleish,
St G. R. Littledale, H. Bower, H. H. P. Deasy and M. S. Wellby; by the
American W. W. Rockhill; the Frenchmen J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins, F.
Grenard, P. G. Bonvalot and Prince Henri d'Orléans; by the Hungarians
L. von Loczy and Count Szechényi; and above all by the Swede Sven
Hedin.
_Western Kuen-lun._--On the east the Pamir highlands are fenced off
from the East Turkestan lowlands by the double border-ridge of
Sarik-kol (the Sarik-kol range and the Muztagh or Kashgar range),
which has its eastern foot down in the Tarim basin (4000-4500 ft.) and
its western up on the Pamirs at 10,500 to 13,000 ft. above sea-level,
while its own summits, e.g. the Muztagh-ata (25,780 ft.), shoot up far
above the limits of perpetual snow. This double border-ridge is
continued east of the meridian of Yarkand or Yarkent (77° E.) by a
succession of twin ranges, all running, though under different names,
from the W.N.W. to the E.S.E. According to the investigations of F.
Stoliczka and K. Bogdanovich, the same fossils occur in both sets of
border ranges, in the Sarik-kol and in their eastward continuations,
e.g. corals, _Stromatophorae_, _Bryozoa_, _Atrypa reticularis_, _A.
latilinguis_ and _A. aspera_, _Spirifer verneuili_, &c., and these the
latter geologist assigns to the Devonian epoch. These eastward
continuations of the double border-range of the Pamirs are the
constituent ranges of the Kuen-lun proper. The names given to them are
the Kilian or Kiliang, the Khotan and the Keriya Mountains in the more
northerly range and the Raskem or Raskan, the Sughet and the
Ullugh-tagh Mountains in the more southerly range. Although they all
decrease in altitude from west to east, they nevertheless reach
elevations of 19,000 ft., with individual peaks ascending some
2000-2500 ft. higher. From the East Turkestan lowlands on the north
the ascent is very steep, and the passes across both sets of ranges
lie at great altitudes; for example, the pass of Sanju-davan in the
lower range is 16,325 ft. above sea-level, and the Kyzyl-davan,
farther east, is 16,900 ft., while the Sughet-davan in the higher
range is 17,825 ft. The latter range is separated from the Karakorum
Mountains by the deeply trenched gorge of the Raskem or Yarkand-darya,
while the deep glen of the Kara-kash or Khotan-darya intervenes
between the upper (Sughet Mountains) and the lower (Kilian Mountains)
border-ranges. Altogether this western extremity of the Kuen-lun
system is a very rugged mountainous region, a consequence partly of
the intricacy of the flanking ranges and spurs, partly of the powerful
lateral compression to which they have been subjected, and partly of
the great and abrupt differences in vertical elevation between the
crests of the ranges and the bottoms of the deep, narrow, rugged glens
between them. In the broad orographical disposition of the ranges
there is considerable similarity between north Tibet and west Persia,
in that in both cases the ranges are crowded together in the west, but
spread out wider as they advance towards the east. To the two
principal ranges in this part of the system F. Grenard, who
accompanied J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins on his journey in 1890-1895, gives
the names the Altyn-tagh and Ustun-tagh, though he names no less than
six parallel ranges altogether. Now as Altyn-tagh[2] is an accepted,
though in point of fact erroneous, name for Astin-tagh, it is clear
that Grenard considers the main Kuen-lun ranges to be continued
directly by the Astin-tagh.
From the transverse breach of the Keriya-darya (about 81½° E.) to that
of the Kara-muren in the longitude of Cherchen (about 85½° E.) the
parallel border-ranges of the Tibetan plateau trend to the E.N.E., and
here occur in the lower or outer range the passes of Dalai-kurghan-art
(14,290 ft.), Choka-davan, i.e. Littledale's Chokur Pass (9530 ft.)
and others at altitudes ranging from 8600 to 11,500 ft., while in the
upper range are the At-to-davan (16,600 ft.), Yapkak-lik-davan (15,550
ft.), Sarshu-davan (15,680 ft.) and others not named at 16,590 and
17,300 ft.
_Middle Kuen-lun._--Between the upper transverse glens of the
Kara-muren (or Mitt River) and the Cherchen-darya stretches the short
range of Tokuz-davan. From it, on the east side of the Cherchen-daryt,
in about 86° E., the component ranges of the middle Kuen-lun begin to
diverge and radiate outwards (i.e. to north and to south) like the
fingers of the outspread human hand. And here at least four principal
ranges or groups of ranges admit of being discriminated, namely the
Astin-tagh, the Chimen-tagh, the Kalta-alaghan and the Arka-tagh, all
belonging to the mountainous country which borders on the north the
actual plateau region of Tibet. Although these several ranges, or
systems of ranges, differ considerably in their orographical
characteristics, the following description will apply generally to the
entire region from the Astin-tagh southwards to the Arka-tagh. The
broad features of the surface configuration are a series of nearly
parallel mountain-ranges, running from W.S.W. E.N.E. to W.N.W. E.S.E.,
and separated by high intermont valleys, which are choked with
disintegrated material and divided into a chequered pattern of
self-contained, shallow lacustrine basins. As a rule the crests of the
ranges are worn down by aerial denudation and have the general
appearance of rounded domes. Hard rock (mostly granite and crystalline
schists, with red sandstone in places) appears only in the transverse
glens, which are often choked with their débris in the form either of
gravel-and-shingle or loose blocks of stone or both. The flanks of the
mountains are so deeply buried in disintegrated material that the
difference in vertical altitude between the floors of the valleys and
the summits of the ranges is comparatively small. But as each
successive range, proceeding south, represents a higher step in the
terraced ascent from the desert of Gobi to the plateau of Tibet, the
ranges when viewed from the north frequently appear like veritable
upstanding mountain ranges, and this appearance is accentuated by the
general steepness of the ascent; whereas, when viewed on the other
hand from the south, these several ranges, owing to their long and
gentle slope in that direction, have the appearance of comparatively
gentle swellings of the earth's surface rather than of well-defined
mountain ranges. As a rule, the streams flow alternately east and west
down the intermont latitudinal valleys, until they break through some
transverse glen in the range on the northern side of the valley. In
the western parts of the system they mostly go to feed the Kara-muren
or the Cherchen-darya, while farther east they flow down into some
larger self-contained basin of internal drainage, such as the
Achik-kol, the two lakes Kara-kol, or the Ghaz-kol, and even yet
farther east make their way, some of them into the lakes of the
Tsaidam depression or become lost in its sands or in those of the
Kum-tagh desert on the north, or go to feed the headstreams of the
great rivers, the Hwang-ho (Yellow River) and the Yangtsze-kiang (Blue
River) in the south. It appears to be a rule that the rivers which
eventually terminate in the deserts of Gobi and Takla-makan grow
increasingly larger in magnitude from east to west. Another law
appears to distinguish the hydrography of at any rate the great
latitudinal valleys of the Arka-tagh and the Chimen valley (north of
the Chimen-tagh): the streams flow close under the foot of the range
that shuts in each individual valley on the north. But in respect of
precipitation there is a very marked difference between the valleys of
the north and those of the south. Whereas both the mountains and
valleys of the Astin-tagh and of the Akato-tagh (the next large range
to the Astin-tagh on the south) are arid and desolate in the extreme,
smitten as it were with the desiccating breath of the desert, those of
the Arka-tagh and beyond are supersaturated with moisture, so that, at
any rate in summer, the surface is in many parts little better than a
quaking quagmire. Throughout vegetation is scanty and faunal life poor
in species, though in some respects certain of the species, e.g. wild
yaks, wild asses (_kulans_), antelopes (_orongo_ and others), marmots,
hares and partridges exist locally in large numbers. The wild camel
approaches the north outliers of the Astin-tagh, but rarely, if ever,
ventures to enter their fastnesses. Bears, wolves, foxes, goats
(_kökmet_), wild sheep (_arkharis_), lizards, earth-rats, and a small
rodent (_teshikan_), with ravens, eagles, wild ducks and wild geese
are the other varieties principally encountered. The vegetation
consists almost entirely of scrubby bushes of several varieties,
including tamarisks and wild briers, of reeds (_kamish_), and of grass
on the _yaylaks_ (pasture-grounds) of the middle ranges. On the
Arka-tagh even the moss, the last surviving representative of the
flora, disappears entirely. In the eastern Astin-tagh a variety of
wild tea (_chay_, mountain tea) is used by the Mongols. Gold is
obtained in very small quantities in a few places in the Astin-tagh
and the Kalta-alaghan. The nomenclature of the numerous ranges in this
part of the Kuen-lun is extremely confusing, owing to different
travellers having applied the same name to different ranges and to
different travellers have applied different names to what is probably
often identically the same range. In this article the nomenclature
adopted is that employed by the latest, and probably the most
thorough, explorer of this part of Central Asia, namely, Sven Hedin.
Nevertheless, owing to the fact that nearly all the longer and more
important crossings of Tibet and its northern montane region have been
made from north to south, or vice versa, that is, transversely across
the ranges, and comparatively few from east to west along the
intermont latitudinal valleys, the identifications between ranges in
the east and ranges in the west are in more than one instance more or
less doubtful.
The _Astin-tagh_, although it occupies a similar position to the twin
ranges of the Western Kuen-lun, in that it forms the outermost
escarpment or border-ridge on the north of the Tibetan plateau, would
appear in the opinion of the most competent judges (e.g. Grenard,
Bogdanovich, Sven Hedin, Przhevalsky), to be only a branch or
subsidiary range of the main range of the Kuen-lun. It is not however
a single, long, continuous chain, as it is shown, for example, on the
map of the Russian general staff, but consists of two parallel main
ranges, and in the east of three, and even to the N.E. of Tsaidam of
four, parallel main ranges, flanked throughout by several subsidiary
chains, spurs and offshoots. Beyond that it swells out into the vast
_massif_ of Anambaruin-ula, which is traversed by at least three minor
parallel chains. But on the east of the Anambaruin-ula it once more
contracts to two main ranges, the more southerly being that which
Przhevalsky called the Humboldt Range (crossed by a pass at 13,200
ft.). This branch is probably continued in the range which overhangs
the Koko-nor on the south, namely, the south Koko-nor Range. The
northern branch merges eastwards into the Nan-shan or Southern
Mountains.[3] The passes in the Lower Astin-tagh range from altitudes
of 10,150 to 10,700 ft., and in the Upper Astin-tagh at 11,770 to
15,680 ft. (Tash-davan), though one pass beside the Charkhlik-su is
only 9660 ft. high. And as the relative altitudes of crest and pass
remain approximately the same as in the Western Kuen-lun, it is
evident how greatly the general elevation of the twin border ridge
decreases towards the east. But there exists a striking difference
between the crests of the Astin-tagh and those of the ranges which
give rise to the gigantic ridge and furrow arrangement on the Tibetan
plateau. "Here in the Astin-tagh the mountains, like those in the
Kuruk-tagh,[4] are indeed severely weathered, but they always consist,
from base to summit, of hard rock, bare and barren, most frequently
piled up in eccentric, rugged masses, denticulated, pinnacled crests
and peaks. On the Tibetan plateau, on the other hand, most of the
ranges are distinguished by their rounded outlines and soft
consistency, and their striking poverty in hard rock, which in the
best cases only crops out near the summits. There too disintegration
has been to a remarkable extent operative. This gives rise to the
great morphological difference, that in the former regions, the
Astin-tagh and the Kuruk-tagh, the products of disintegration are
almost always carried away by the wind, and so disappear; no matter
how powerful or how active the disintegration may be, none of the
loosened material ever succeeds either in gathering amongst the
mountains or in accumulating at their foot. The climate is so arid,
and precipitation so extremely rare, that the fine powdery material
falls a helpless prey to the winds. On the other hand, the
precipitation on the Tibetan plateau is so copious, and so uniformly
distributed, that it is able to retain the loosened material _in
situ_, and causes it to heap itself up in rounded masses on the flanks
of the mountains that are its primitive source of origin, these
projecting in great part like skeletons from the midst of their own
ruins."[5] The twin ranges of the Astin-tagh are fairly equivalent in
point of magnitude and regularity; but while the Lower Range, on the
north, sensibly decreases in altitude towards the east, the Upper
Range, on the south, maintains its general altitude in a remarkable
way, and is gapped by steep, wild, deeply incised transverse glens
directed towards the north, and generally fenced in by dark
precipitous walls of rock. The great valley between the two is "cut up
into a series of self-contained basins, each serving as the gathering
ground of the brooks that run down off the adjacent mountains. Outside
the lower end of each large transverse glen there is a scree of
sedimentary matter. These screes are however very flat and their lower
edges generally reach all the way down to the central part of the
basin, which is occupied by an expanse of yellow clay, perfectly flat
and fairly hard, as well as dry and barren, often cracked into
polygonal cakes and drawn out in the direction of the long axis of the
valley.... But though the great morphological features of this
latitudinal valley forcibly recall the latitudinal valleys of Tibet,
the climatic differences give rise to differences between the basins
corresponding to the differences between the mountain-ranges
themselves. For while the self-contained basins of Tibet generally
possess a salt lake in the middle, into which brooks and streams of
greater or less magnitude gather, often from very considerable
distances, these self-contained basins of the Astin-tagh are very
small in area, and it is extremely seldom that their central parts
receive any water at all, only in fact after copious rain. These
terminal lakes, or more accurately sedimentary plains, are therefore
almost always dry."[6]
The next parallel range on the south, the _Akato-tagh_, and the valley
which separates it from the Astin-tagh, are equally arid and
waterless. The valley, known by the general name of Kakir, meaning a
"hard, dry, sterile expanse of clay," is chequered with shallow
self-contained basins of the usual type and has remarkably gentle
slopes up to the mountains on both north and south. Its surface
slopes from altitudes of 10,100 to 10,600 ft. in the west, where is
the lake of Uzunshor (9650 ft.) to 9400 ft. in the east, in which
direction it continues as far as the Anambaruin-ula (see below) and
the plain or flat basin of Särtäng, a north extension of Tsaidam. This
range of Akato-tagh, the Altun Range of Carey, is the same as that
which on the map of the Russian general staff bears the name
Chimen-tagh. Like the Astin-tagh it stretches towards the E.N.E., and,
like it, appears to be built up of granite and schists, but its crest
is greatly denuded, so that it is a mere crumbling skeleton protruding
above the deep mantle of disintegrated material which masks its
flanks. The slopes on both north and south are extremely gentle, but
that on the south is eight to ten times as long as that on the north.
In the east the range is mostly narrow, and dies away on the edge of
the Tsaidam depression; but in the west it swells out into the lofty
and imposing mass of the Ilve-chimen or Shia-manglay, which is capped
with perpetual snow. This part of the range is crossed by the pass of
Chopur-alik at an altitude of 16,160 ft., but farther east the passes
lie at altitudes of 13,380 to 10,520 ft. The latitudinal valley that
intervenes between the Akato-tagh and the next great range on the
south, the Chimen-tagh, slopes for the most part eastwards, from
12,500 ft. down to the shallow salt lake of Ghaz-kol or Chimen-koli
(9305 ft.). In the western part of this valley occurs the very
important transverse water-divide of Gulcha-davan (14,150 ft.), which
separates the basin of the Cherchen-darya that goes down into the
Tarim basin from the area that drains down to the Ghaz-kol, which
belongs to the Tsaidam depression. This, the Chimen valley, contains
in places a good deal of drift-sand, which however is stationary in
the mass and heaped up along the northern foot of the Chimen-tagh.
Nevertheless the Akato-tagh is only of secondary importance in the
general Kuen-lun system, being nothing more than a central ridge
running along the broad Kakir valley that separates the Astin-tagh
from the Chimen-tagh.
The latter range, the _Chimen-tagh_, is identical in its western parts
with the Piazlik-tagh and in the east must be equated with the Tsaidam
chain of Przhevalsky; and it is probably continued westwards by the
range which the Russian explorers call the Moscow Range or the
Achik-tagh, running north of the Achik-kol and, according to
Przhevalsky, connecting on the west with the Tokuz-davan. The
Chimen-tagh rises into imposing summits, some rounded, some pyramidal
in outline, which are capped with snow, though the snow melts in
summer. This range acts as a "breakwater" to the clouds, arresting and
condensing the moisture which is carried northwards by the south
winds. Hence its slopes are not so arid as those of the Akato-tagh and
the Astin-tagh. Snow falls all the year round on the Chimen-tagh, even
in July, and water is abundant everywhere. The southern slope of the
range is gentle but short, the northern slope long and steep. Grass is
able to grow, and animal life is more abundant. The range is crossed
by passes at 13,970, 13,230 and 13,760 ft., and the Piazlik-tagh by a
pass at an altitude of 13,640 ft.
The next important range, still going south, is the _Kalta-alaghan_,
Carey's Chimen-tagh Range, Przhevalsky's Columbus Range and the range
which is variously designated (e.g. by Pyevtsov) as the Ambal-ashkan,
Kalga-lagan and Ara-tagh. This last is, however, properly the name of
a short secondary range which rises along the middle (_ara_ = middle)
of the valley between the Chimen-tagh and the Kalta-alaghan. Not only
is it of lower elevation than them both, but it dies away towards the
west, the valleys on each side of it meeting round its extremity to
form one broad, open valley, with an altitude of 11,790 to 13,725 ft.
The Ara-tagh is crossed by a pass at an altitude of 14,345 ft. In the
Kalta-alaghan, which is the culminating range of this part of the
Kuen-lun, and is overtopped by towering, snow-clad peaks, the passes
climb to considerably higher altitudes, namely, 14,560, 14,470, 14,430
and 14,190 ft., while the pass of Avraz-davan ascends to 15,700 ft.
This range appears to be linked on to the Tokuz-davan by the
Muzluk-tagh, in which there are passes at 16,870 and 15,450 ft. It is
possible however that the Muzluk-tagh belongs more intimately to the
Chimen-tagh system, that is, to the Moscow or Achik-kol ranges, Indeed
Bogdanovich considers that the Tokuz-davan, the Muzluk-tagh, the
Moscow Range and the Chimen-tagh form one single closely connected
chain, in which he also places Przhevalsky's isolated peak of Mount
Kreml (15,055 ft.). Sven Hedin, whilst agreeing that this may possibly
be the true conception, inclines to the view that the Achik-kol Range
dies away towards the E., and that the Chimen-tagh and the
Kalta-alaghan merge westwards into the border-ranges that lie north of
the Muzluk-tagh and the Tokuz-davan. Unlike most of the other parallel
ranges of N. Tibet, the Kalta-alaghan does not decrease, but it
increases in elevation towards the east, where, like the Chimen-tagh,
it abuts upon and merges in the ranges that border Tsaidam on the
south.
Immediately south of the Kalta-alaghan comes a relatively deep
depression, the _Kum-kol valley_, forming a very well-marked feature
in the physical conformation of this region. It is crossed
transversely by a water-divide which separates the basin of the
twin-lakes of Kum-kol (12,700 ft.) from the basin of Tsaidam, some
3500 ft. lower. The floor of the valley consequently slopes away in
both directions, like the Chimen valley between the Akato-tagh and the
Chimen-tagh; and in so far as it slopes westwards towards the Kum-kol
lakes it differs from nearly all the other great latitudinal valleys
that run parallel with it, because they slope generally towards the
east. Not far from the Kum-kol lakes there is a drift-sand area,
though the dunes are stationary. The upper lake of Kum-kol
(Chon-kum-kol) (12,730 ft.), which contains fresh water, is of small
area (8 sq. m.) and in depth nowhere exceeds 13 ft.; but the lower
lake (Ayak-kum-kol) (12,685 ft.), which is salt, is much bigger (283
sq. m.) and goes down to depths of 64 and 79 ft. Farther west, lying
between the Muzluk-tagh and the Arka-tagh, is the lake of Achik-kol
(13,940 ft.), 16½ m. broad and 50 m. in circuit.
The next great parallel range is the lofty and imposing _Arka-tagh_,
the Przhevalsky Range of the Russian geographers, which has its
eastward continuations in the Marco Polo Range (general altitude
15,750-16,250 ft.) and Gurbu-naiji Mountains of Przhevalsky. The
Arka-tagh[7] is the true backbone of the Kuen-lun system, and in
Central Asia is exceeded in elevation only by the Tang-la, a long way
farther south, this last being probably an eastern wing of the
Karakorum Mountains of the Pamirs region. At the same time the
Arka-tagh is the actual border-range of the Tibetan plateau properly
so-called; to the south of it none of the long succession of lofty
parallel ranges which ridge the Tibetan highlands seems to have any
connexion with the Kuen-lun system. Of great length, the Arka-tagh,
which is a mountain-system rather than a range, varies greatly in
configuration in different parts, sometimes exhibiting a sharply
defined main crest, with several lower flanking ranges, and sometimes
consisting of numerous parallel crests of nearly uniform altitude.
Amongst these it is possible to distinguish in the middle of the
system four predominant ranges, of which the second from the north is
probably the principal range, though the fourth is the highest. The
passes across the first range (north) lie at altitudes of 15,675,
16,420, 17,320 and 18,300 ft.; across the second at 16,830, 17,020,
17,070 and 17,220 ft.; across the third at 16,800, 16,660, 17,065,
17,830 and 17,880 ft.; and across the fourth at 16,540, 16,765,
16,780, 18,100 and 18,110 ft. The crests of the ranges lie
comparatively little higher than the valleys which separate them, the
altitudes in the latter running at 14,940 to 16,700 ft., if not
higher, and being only 500 to 1000 ft. lower than the crests of the
accompanying ranges. The Arka-tagh ranges do not culminate in lofty
jagged, pinnacled peaks, but in broad rounded, flattened domes, a
characteristic feature of the system throughout. These Arka-tagh
mountains are built up, at all events superficially, of sand and
powdery, finely sifted disintegrated material. Where the hard rock
does crop out on the surface, it is so excessively weathered as to be
with difficulty recognized as rock at all. The culminating summits of
the ranges generally present the appearance of a flat, rounded
swelling, and when they are crowned with glaciers, as many of them
are, these shape themselves into what may be described as a mantle, a
breast-plate, or a flat cap, from which lappets and fringes project at
intervals; nowhere do there exist any of the long, narrow, winding
glacier tongues which are so characteristic of the Alps of Europe. But
not the slightest indication has been discovered that these mountains
were ever panoplied with ice. The process of disintegration and
levelling down has reached such an advanced stage that, if ever there
did exist evidences of former glaciation, they have now become
entirely obliterated, even to the complete pulverization of the
erratic blocks, supposing there were any. The view that meets the eye
southwards from the heights of the Kalta-alaghan is the picture of a
chaos of mountain chains, ridges, crests, peaks, spurs, detached
masses, in fact, montane conformations of every possible description
and in every possible arrangement. Immediately north of the Arka-tagh
the country is studded with three or four exceptionally conspicuous
and imposing detached mountain masses, all capped with snow and some
of them carrying small glaciers. Amongst them are Shapka Monomakha or
the Monk's Cap; the Chulak-akkan, which may however be only Shapka
Monomakha seen from a different point of view; Tömürlik-tagh[8] (i.e.
the Iron Mountain); and farther west, Ullugh-muz-tagh, which,
according to Grenard, reaches an altitude of 24,140 ft. But the
relations in which these detached mountain-masses stand to one another
and to the Arka-tagh behind them have not yet been elucidated. In the
vicinity of the Ullugh-muz-tagh there exist numerous indications of
former volcanic activity, the eminences and summits frequently being
capped with tuff, and smaller fragments of tuff are scattered over
other parts of the Arka-tagh ranges.
The next succeeding parallel range, the _Koko-shili_, which is
continued eastwards by the Bayan-khara-ula, between the upper
headstreams of the Hwang-ho or Yellow River and the Yangtsze-kiang,
belongs orographically to the plateau of Tibet.
The succession of ranges which follow one another from the deserts of
Takla-makan and Gobi up to the plateau proper of Tibet rise in steps
or terraces, each range being higher than the range to the north of it
and lower than the range to the south of it. The difference in
altitude between the lowest, most northerly range, the Lower
Astin-tagh, and the most southerly of the Arka-tagh ranges amounts to
nearly 7500 ft. With one exception, namely the climb out of the
Kum-kol valley to the Arka-tagh, the first three steps are
individually the biggest; whereas the Upper Astin-tagh exceeds the
Lower Astin-tagh by an altitude of some 1350 ft., it is itself
exceeded by the Akato-tagh to the extent of 1760 ft. There is also a
considerable rise of 880 ft. from the Akato-tagh to the Chimen-tagh.
But between the Chimen-tagh, the Ara-tagh and the Kalta-alaghan there
is comparatively little difference in point of elevation, namely, 730
ft. in all. The biggest ascent is that from the Kalta-alaghan to the
Arka-tagh, namely, nearly 1850 ft. The ranges of the Arka-tagh, again,
run at pretty nearly the same absolute general altitudes, namely,
16,470 to 17,260 ft. When the altitudes of the intermont latitudinal
valleys are compared, the significance orographically of the Chimen
valley and of the Kum-kol valley is strikingly emphasized. Both are
much more deeply excavated than all the other latitudinal valleys that
run parallel to them, the Chimen valley being 875 ft. above the valley
to the north of it, but no less than 2235 ft. below the valley to the
south of it. The case of the Kum-kol valley is altogether exceptional,
for it lies not higher, but 680 ft. lower, than the valley to the
north of it, and consequently the climb up out of it to the first (on
north) of the Arka-tagh valleys amounts to no less than 2900 ft. Hence
these ten parallel ranges of the middle Kuen-lun system may be grouped
in three divisions--(1) the more strictly border ranges of the Upper
and Lower Astin-tagh and the Akato-tagh; (2) the three ranges of
Chimen-tagh, Ara-tagh and Kalta-alaghan, which may be considered as
forming a transitional system between the foregoing and the third
division; (3) the Arka-tagh, which constitute the elevated rampart of
the Tibetan plateau proper. (J. T. Be.)
The _Nan-shan Highlands_ overlook Tsaidam on the N.E. They embrace a
region 380 m. long and 260 m. wide, entirely occupied with parallel
mountain ranges all running from the N.W. to the S.E. Broad, flat,
longitudinal valleys, at altitudes of 12,000 to 14,000 ft. (9000 to
10,000 at the south-western border) and dotted with lakes (Koko-nor,
9970 ft.; Khara-nor, 13,285 ft.), fill up the space between these
mountain ranges. In the S.E. the Nan-shan highlands abut upon the
highlands of the Chinese province of Kan-suh, and near the great
northward bend of the Hwang-ho they meet the escarpments by which the
Great Khingan and the In-shan ranges are continued, and by which the
Mongolian plateau steps down to the lowlands of China. On the N.E. the
Nan-shan highlands have their foot on the Mongolian plateau (average
altitude, 4000 ft.), i.e. in the Ala-shan. On the N.W. they are
fringed by a border range, the Da-sue-shan, a continuation of the
Astin-tagh, which rises to 12,200-13,000 ft. in its passes, and is
pierced by several rivers flowing west to Lake Khala-chi or Khara-nor.
This border-range, which continues on to the 97th meridian, separates
the Nan-shan range from the Pe-shan range.
On the S.W. the Nan-shan mountains consist of short irregular chains,
separated by broad plains, dotted with lakes, which differ but
slightly in altitude from Tsaidam (8800-9000 ft.). Next a succession
of narrow ranges intervene between this lower border terrace and the
higher terrace (12,000-13,500 ft.). The first mountain range on this
higher terrace is Ritter's range, covered in part with extensive
snow-fields. The passes at both ends of this snow-clad _massif_ lie at
altitudes of 15,990 ft. and 14,680 ft. The next range is Humboldt or
Ama-surgu range, which runs N.W. to S.E. from the Astin-tagh to about
38° N., and is perhaps continued by the southern Kuku (Koko)-nor
range, which strikes the Hwang-ho with an elevation of 7440 ft. It
includes, in fact, several other parallel ranges--e.g. the Mushketov,
Semenov, Suess, Alexander III., Bain-sarlyk--the mutual relations of
which are, however, not yet definitely settled.
Small lateral chains of mountains, rising some 2000 ft. above the
general level of that plateau, connect the central Nan-shan with the
next parallel ranges, namely, those of the eastern Nan-shan. The
mutual relations of the latter, as well as the names of the several
constituent chains, are equally unsettled. Thus, one of them is named
indiscriminately Nan-shan, Richthofen Range and Momo-shan. In fact,
the region is dominated by three ranges of nearly equal altitude, all
lifting many of their peaks above the snow-line. Finally, there is a
range of mountains, about 10,000 ft. high, named Lung-shan by
Obruchev, which borders the Kan-chow and Lian-chow valley on the N.E.,
and belongs to the Nan-shan system. But the string of oases in Kan-suh
province, which stretches between the towns named, lies on the lower
level of the Mongolian plateau (4000 to 5000 ft.), so that the
Lung-shan ought possibly to be regarded as a continuation of the
Pe-shan mountains of the Gobi.
Generally speaking, the Nan-shan highlands are a region raised 12,000
to 14,000 ft. above the sea, and intersected by wild, stony and partly
snow-clad mountains, towering another 4000 to 7000 ft. above its
surface, and arranged in narrow parallel chains all running N.W. to
S.E. The chains of mountains are severally from 8 to 17 m. wide,
seldom as much as 35, while the broad, flat valleys between them
attain widths of 20 to 27 m. As a rule the passes are at an altitude
of 12,000 to 14,000 ft., and the peaks reach 18,000 to 20,000 ft. in
the western portion of the highlands, while in the eastern portion
they may be about 2000 ft. lower. The glaciers also attain a greater
development in the western portion of the Nan-shan, but the valleys
are dry, and the slopes of both the mountains and the valleys,
furrowed by deep ravines, are devoid of vegetation. Good pasture
grounds are only found near the streams. The soil is dry gravel and
clay, upon which bushes of _Ephedra_, _Nitraria_ and _Salsolaceae_
grow sparsely. In the north-eastern Nan-shan, on the contrary, a
stream runs through each gorge, and both the mountain slopes and the
bottoms of the valleys are covered with vegetation. Forests of
conifers (_Picea obovata_) and deciduous trees--Przhevalsky's poplar,
birch, mountain ash, &c., and a variety of bushes--are common
everywhere. Higher up, in the picturesque gorges, grow rhododendrons,
willows, _Potentilla fruticosa_, _Spriaeae_, _Lonicereae_, &c., and
the rains must evidently be more copious and better distributed. In
the central Nan-shan it is only the north-eastern slopes that bear
forests. In the south, where the Nan-shan enters Kan-suh province,
extensive accumulations of loess make their appearance, and it is only
the northern slopes of the hills that are clothed with trees.
(P. A. K.)
AUTHORITIES.--An enumeration of the works published before 1890, and a
map of itineraries, will be found in Wegener's _Versuch einer
Orographie des Kuen-lun_ (Marburg, 1891), but his map is only
approximately correct. Of the books published since 1890 the most
important are Sven Hedin's _Scientific Results of a Journey in Central
Asia_, 1899-1902 (Stockholm, 1905-1907, 6 vols.), with an elaborate
atlas and a general map of Tibet on the scale of 1 : 1,000,000; H. H.
P. Deasy's _In Tibet and Chinese Turkestan_ (London, 1901), with a
good map; F. Grenard's vol. (iii.) of J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins's
_Mission scientifique dans la haute Asie, 1890-1895_ (n.p., 1897),
also with a very useful map; W. W. Rockhill's _Diary of a Journey
through Mongolia and Tibet in 1891 and 1892_ (Washington, 1894); M. S.
Wellby's _Through Unknown Tibet_ (London, 1898); P. G. Bonvalot's _De
Paris au Tonkin à travers le Tibet inconnu_ (Paris, 1892); St G. R.
Littledale's "A Journey across Tibet," in _Geog. Journal_ (May 1896);
H. Bower's _Diary of a Journey across Tibet_ (London, 1894); the
_Izvestia_ of the Russian Geog. Soc. and _Geog. Journal_, both
_passim_.