[1] John Hill Burton (_Hist. of Scotland_, iii. 339). Mr Burton's
view (differing from that of Professor Hume Brown) was that the
dialogues--the earlier of them at least--must have been spoken in the
French tongue, in which Knox had recently preached for a year.
KNOX, PHILANDER CHASE (1853- ), American lawyer and political leader,
was born in Brownsville, Pennsylvania, on the 4th of May 1853. He
graduated from Mount Union College (Ohio) in 1872, and was admitted to
the Pennsylvania bar in 1875. He settled in Pittsburg, where he
continued in private practice, with the exception of two years' service
(1876-1877) as assistant United States district attorney, acquiring a
large practice as a corporation lawyer. In April 1901 he became
attorney-general of the United States in the cabinet of President
McKinley, and retained this position after the accession of President
Roosevelt until June 1904, when he was appointed by Governor Pennypacker
of Pennsylvania to fill the unexpired term of Matthew S. Quay in the
United States Senate; in 1905 he was re-elected to the Senate for the
full term. In March 1909 he became secretary of state in the cabinet of
President Taft.
KNOXVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Knox county, Tennessee, U.S.A.,
in the E. part of the state, 160 m. E. of Nashville, and about 190 m.
S.E. of Louisville, Kentucky, on the right bank of the Tennessee river,
4 m. below the point where it is formed by the junction of the French
Broad and Holston Rivers. Pop. (1880), 9693; (1890), 22,535; (1900),
32,637, of whom 7359 were negroes and 895 were foreign-born; (1910
census), 36,346. It is served by the main line and by branches of the
Louisville & Nashville and the Southern railways, by the Knoxville &
Bristol railway (Morristown to Knoxville, 58 m.), by the short Knoxville
& Augusta railroad (Knoxville to Walland, 26 m.), and by passenger and
freight steamboat lines on the Tennessee river, which is here navigable
for the greater part of the year. A steel and concrete street-car bridge
crosses the Tennessee at Knoxville. Knoxville is picturesquely situated
at an elevation of from 850 to 1000 ft. in the valley between the Smoky
Mountains and the Cumberland Mountains, and is one of the healthiest
cities in the United States. There are several beautiful parks, of which
Chilhowie and Fountain City are the largest, and among the public
buildings are a city-hall, Federal building, court-house, the Knoxville
general hospital, the Lincoln memorial hospital, the Margaret McClung
industrial home, a Young Men's Christian Association building and the
Lawson-McGhee public library. A monument to John Sevier stands on the
site of the blockhouse first built there. Knoxville is the seat of
Knoxville College (United Presbyterian, 1875) for negroes, East
Tennessee institute, a secondary school for girls, the Baker-Himel
school for boys, Tennessee Medical College (1889), two commercial
schools and the university of Tennessee. The last, a state
co-educational institution, was chartered as Blount College in 1794 and
as East Tennessee College in 1807, but not opened until 1820--the
present name was adopted in 1879. It had in 1907-1908 106 instructors,
755 students (536 in academic departments), and a library of 25,000
volumes. With the university is combined the state college of
agriculture and engineering; and a large summer school for teachers is
maintained. At Knoxville are the Eastern State insane asylum, state
asylums for the deaf and dumb (for both white and negro), and a national
cemetery in which more than 3200 soldiers are buried. Knoxville is an
important commercial and industrial centre and does a large jobbing
business. It is near hardwood forests and is an important market for
hardwood mantels. Coal-mines in the vicinity produce more than 2,000,000
tons annually, and neighbouring quarries furnish the famous Tennessee
marble, which is largely exported. Excellent building and pottery clays
are found near Knoxville. Among the city's industrial establishments are
flour and grist mills, cotton and woollen mills, furniture, desk, office
supplies and sash, door, and blind factories, meat-packing
establishments, clothing factories, iron, steel and boiler works,
foundries and machine shops, stove works and brick and cement works. The
value of the factory product increased from $6,201,840 in 1900 to
$12,432,880 in 1905, or 100.5%, in 1905 the value of the flour and grist
mill products alone being $2,048,509. Just outside the city the Southern
railway maintains large car and repair shops. Knoxville was settled in
1786 by James White (1737-1815), a North Carolina pioneer, and was first
known as "White's Fort"; it was laid out as a town in 1791, and named in
honour of General Henry Knox, then secretary of war in Washington's
cabinet. In 1791 the _Knoxville Gazette_, the first newspaper in
Tennessee (the early issue, printed at Rogersville) began publication.
From 1792 to 1796 Knoxville was the capital of the "Territory South of
the Ohio," and until 1811 and again in 1817 it was the capital of the
state. In 1796 the convention which framed the constitution of the new
state of Tennessee met here, and here later in the same year the first
state legislature was convened. Knoxville was chartered as a city in
1815. In its early years it was several times attacked by the Indians,
but was never captured. During the Civil War there was considerable
Union sentiment in East Tennessee, and in the summer of 1863 the Federal
authorities determined to take possession of Knoxville as well as
Chattanooga and to interrupt railway communications between the
Confederates of the East and West through this region. As the
Confederates had erected only slight defences for the protection of the
city, Burnside, with about 12,000 men, easily gained possession on the
2nd of September 1863. Fortifications were immediately begun for its
defence, and on the 4th of November, Bragg, thinking his position at
Chattanooga impregnable against Grant, Sherman, Thomas and Hooker,
despatched a force of 20,000 men under Longstreet to engage Burnside.
Longstreet arrived in the vicinity on the 16th of November, and on the
following day began a siege, which was continued with numerous assaults
until the 28th, when a desperate but unsuccessful attack was made on
Fort Sanders, and upon the approach of a relief force under Sherman,
Longstreet withdrew on the night of the 4th of December. The Confederate
losses during the siege were 182 killed, 768 wounded and 192 captured or
missing; the Union losses were 92 killed, 394 wounded and 207 captured
or missing. West Knoxville (incorporated in 1888) and North Knoxville
(incorporated in 1889) were annexed to Knoxville in 1898.
See the sketch by Joshua W. Caldwell in _Historic Towns of the
Southern States_, edited by L. P. Powell (New York, 1900); and W.
Rule, G. F. Mellen and J. Wooldridge, _Standard History of Knoxville_
(Chicago, 1900).
KNUCKLE (apparently the diminutive of a word for "bone," found in Ger.
_Knochen_), the joint of a finger, which, when the hand is shut, is
brought into prominence. In mechanical use the word is applied to the
round projecting part of a hinge through which the pin is run, and in
ship-building to an acute angle on some of the timbers. A
"knuckle-duster," said to have originally come from the criminal slang
of the United States, is a brass or metal instrument fitting on to the
hand across the knuckles, with projecting studs and used for inflicting
a brutal blow.
KNUCKLEBONES (HUCKLEBONES, DIBS, JACKSTONES, CHUCK-STONES, FIVE-STONES),
a game of very ancient origin, played with five small objects,
originally the knucklebones of a sheep, which are thrown up and caught
in various ways. Modern "knucklebones" consist of six points, or knobs,
proceeding from a common base, and are usually of metal. The winner is
he who first completes successfully a prescribed series of throws,
which, while of the same general character, differ widely in detail. The
simplest consists in tossing up one stone, the _jack_, and picking up
one or more from the table while it is in the air; and so on until all
five stones have been picked up. Another consists in tossing up first
one stone, then two, then three and so on, and catching them on the back
of the hand. Different throws have received distinctive names, such as
"riding the elephant," "peas in the pod," and "horses in the stable."
The origin of knucklebones is closely connected with that of dice, of
which it is probably a primitive form, and is doubtless Asiatic.
Sophocles, in a fragment, ascribed the invention of draughts and
knucklebones (_astragaloi_) to Palamedes, who taught them to his Greek
countrymen during the Trojan War. Both the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_
contain allusions to games similar in character to knucklebones, and the
Palamedes tradition, as flattering to the national pride, was generally
accepted throughout Greece, as is indicated by numerous literary and
plastic evidences. Thus Pausanias (_Corinth_ xx.) mentions a temple of
Fortune in which Palamedes made an offering of his newly invented game.
According to a still more ancient tradition, Zeus, perceiving that
Ganymede longed for his playmates upon Mount Ida, gave him Eros for a
companion and golden dibs with which to play, and even condescended
sometimes to join in the game (Apollonius). It is significant, however,
that both Herodotus and Plato ascribe to the game a foreign origin.
Plato (_Phaedrus_) names the Egyptian god Theuth as its inventor, while
Herodotus relates that the Lydians, during a period of famine in the
days of King Atys, originated this game and indeed almost all other
games except chess. There were two methods of playing in ancient times.
The first, and probably the primitive method, consisted in tossing up
and catching the bones on the back of the hand, very much as the game
is played to-day. In the Museum of Naples may be seen a painting
excavated at Pompeii, which represents the goddesses Latona, Niobe,
Phoebe, Aglaia and Hileaera, the last two being engaged in playing at
Knucklebones (see GREEK ART, fig. 42). According to an epigram of
Asclepiodotus, astragals were given as prizes to school-children, and we
are reminded of Plutarch's anecdote of the youthful Alcibiades, who,
when a teamster threatened to drive over some of his knucklebones that
had fallen into the wagon-ruts, boldly threw himself in front of the
advancing team. This simple form of the game was generally played only
by women and children, and was called _pentalitha_ or five-stones. There
were several varieties of it besides the usual toss and catch, one being
called _tropa_, or hole-game, the object having been to toss the bones
into a hole in the earth. Another was the simple and primitive game of
"odd or even."
The second, probably derivative, form of the game was one of pure
chance, the stones being thrown upon a table, either with the hand or
from a cup, and the values of the sides upon which they fell counted. In
this game the shape of the pastern-bones used for astralagoi, as well as
for the _tali_ of the Romans, with whom knucklebones was also popular,
determined the manner of counting. The pastern-bone of a sheep, goat or
calf has, besides two rounded ends upon which it cannot stand, two broad
and two narrow sides, one of each pair being concave and one convex. The
convex narrow side, called _chios_ or "the dog" counted 1; the convex
broad side 3; the concave broad side 4; and the concave narrow side 6.
Four astragals were used and 35 different scores were possible at a
single throw, many receiving distinctive names such as Aphrodite, Midas,
Solon, Alexander, and, among the Romans, Venus, King, Vulture, &c. The
highest throw in Greece, counting 40, was the Euripides, and was
probably a combination throw, since more than four sixes could not be
thrown at one time. The lowest throw, both in Greece and Rome, was the
Dog.
See _Cassell's Book of Sports and Pastimes_ (London, 1896); _Games and
Songs of American Children_, by W. W. Newell (1893); and _The Young
Folks' Cyclopaedia of Games and Sports_ (New York, 1899), for the
modern children's game. For the history see _Les Jeux des Anciens_, by
L. Becq de Fouquières (Paris, 1869); _Das Knochelspiel der Alten_, by
Bolle (Wismar, 1886); _Die Spiele der Griechen und Römer_, by W.
Richter (Leipzig, 1887).
KNUTSFORD, a market town in the Knutsford parliamentary division of
Cheshire, England; on the London & North-Western and Great Central
railways, 24 m. E.N.E. of Chester, on the Cheshire Lines and London &
North-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 5172. It is
pleasantly situated on an elevated ridge, with the fine domains of
Tatton Park and Tabley respectively north and west of it. The meres in
these domains are especially picturesque. Knutsford is noted in modern
times as the scene of Mrs Gaskell's novel _Cranford_. Among several
ancient houses the most interesting are a cottage with the date 1411
carved on its woodwork, and the Rose and Crown tavern, dated 1641. A
number of curious old customs linger in the town, such as the practice
of working designs in coloured sand, when a wedding takes place, before
the bride's house. In what is probably the oldest Unitarian graveyard in
the kingdom Mrs Gaskell lies buried; and in a churchyard a mile from the
town stood the ancient church, which, though partially rebuilt in the
time of Henry VIII., fell into ruin in 1741. The church of St John,
built in 1744, and enlarged in 1879, was supplemented, in 1880, by St
Cross Church, in Perpendicular style. The town has a grammar school,
founded before the reign of Henry VIII., but reorganized in 1885. Lord
Egerton built the Egerton schools in 1893. The industries comprise
cotton, worsted and leather manufactures; but Knutsford is mainly a
residential town, as many Manchester merchants have settled here,
attracted by the fine climate and surroundings. Knutsford was the
birthplace of Sir Henry Holland, Physician Extraordinary to Queen
Victoria (1788-1873); and his son, the second Sir Henry, who was
secretary of state for the colonies (1887-1892), was raised to the
peerage in 1888 with the title of Baron Knutsford.
The name Knutsford (_Cunetesford_, _Knotesford_) is said to signify
Cnut's ford, but there is no evidence of a settlement here previous to
Domesday. In 1086 Erthebrand held Knutsford immediately of William
FitzNigel, baron of Halton, who was himself a mesne lord of Hugh Lupus
earl of Chester. In 1292 William de Tabley, lord of both Over and Nether
Knutsford, granted free burgage to his burgesses in both Knutsfords.
This charter is the only one which gives Knutsford a claim to the title
of borough. It provided that the burgesses might elect a bailiff from
amongst themselves every year. The office however carried little real
power with it, and soon lapsed. In the same year as the charter to
Knutsford the king granted to William de Tabley a market every Saturday
at Nether Knutsford, and a three days' fair at the Feast of St Peter and
St Paul. When this charter was confirmed by Edward III. another market
(Friday) and another three days' fair (Feast of St Simon and St Jude)
were added. The Friday market was certainly dropped by 1592, if it was
ever held. May-day revels are still kept up here and attract large
crowds from the neighbourhood. A silk mill was erected here in 1770, and
there was also an attempt to foster the cotton trade, but the lack of
means of communication made the undertaking impossible.
See Henry Green, _History of Knutsford_ (1859).
KOALA (_Phascolarctus cinereus_), a stoutly built marsupial, of the
family _Phascolmyidae_, which also contains the wombats. This animal,
which inhabits the south-eastern parts of the Australian continent, is
about 2 ft. in length, and of an ash-grey colour, an excellent climber,
residing generally in lofty eucalyptus trees, the buds and tender shoots
of which form its principal food, though occasionally it descends to the
ground in the night in search of roots. From its shape the koala is
called by the colonists the "native bear"; the term "native sloth" being
also applied to it, from its arboreal habits and slow deliberate
movements. The flesh is highly prized by the natives, and is palatable
to Europeans. The skins are largely imported into England, for the
manufacture of articles in which a cheap and durable fur is required.
KOBDO, a town of the Chinese Empire, in north-west Mongolia, at the
northern foot of the Mongolian Altai, on the right bank of the Buyantu
River, 13 m. from its entrance into Lake Khara-usu; 500 m. E.S.E. of
Biysk (Russian), and 470 m. W. of Ulyasutai. It is situated amidst a
dreary plain, and consists of a fortress, the residence of the governor
of the Kobdo district, and a small trading town, chiefly peopled by
Chinese and a few Mongols. It is, however, an important centre for trade
between the cattle-breeding nomads and Peking. It was founded by the
Chinese in 1731, and pillaged by the Mussulmans in 1872. The district of
Kobdo occupies the north-western corner of Mongolia, and is peopled
chiefly by Mongols, and also by Kirghiz and a few Soyotes, Uryankhes and
Khotons. It is governed by a Chinese commissioner, who has under him a
special Mongol functionary (Mongol, _dzurgan_). The chief monastery is
at Ulangom. Considerable numbers of sheep (about 1,000,000), sheepskins,
sheep and camel wool are exported to China, while Chinese cottons, brick
tea and various small goods are imported. Leather, velveteen, cotton,
iron and copper goods boxes, &c., are imported from Russia in exchange
for cattle, furs and wool. The absence of a cart road to Biysk hinders
the development of this trade.
KOBELL, WOLFGANG XAVER FRANZ, BARON VON (1803-1882), German
mineralogist, was born at Munich on the 19th of July 1803. He studied
chemistry and mineralogy at Landshut (1820-1823), and in 1826 became
professor of mineralogy in the university of Munich. He introduced some
new methods of mineral analyses, and in 1835 invented the stauroscope
for the study of the optical properties of crystals. He contributed
numerous papers to scientific journals, and described many new minerals.
He died at Munich on the 11th of November, 1882.
PUBLICATIONS.--_Charakteristik der Mineralien_ (2 vols. 1830-1831);
_Tafeln zur Bestimmung der Mineralien_ &c. (1833; and later editions,
ed. 12, by K. Oebbeke, 1884); _Grundzüge der Mineralogie_ (1838);
_Geschichte der Mineralogie von 1650-1860_ (1864).
KOCH, ROBERT (1843-1910), German bacteriologist, was born at Klausthal,
Hanover, on the 11th of December 1843. He studied medicine at Göttingen,
and it was while he was practising as a physician at Wollstein that he
began those bacteriological researches that made his name famous. In
1876 he obtained a pure culture of the bacillus of anthrax, announcing a
method of preventive inoculation against that disease seven years later.
He became a member of the Sanitary Commission at Berlin and a professor
at the School of Medicine in 1880, and five years later he was appointed
to a chair in Berlin University and director of the Institute of Health.
In 1882, largely as the result of the improved methods of
bacteriological investigation he was able to elaborate, he discovered
the bacillus of tuberculosis; and in the following year, having been
sent on an official mission to Egypt and India to study the aetiology of
Asiatic cholera, he identified the comma bacillus as the specific
organism of that malady. In 1890 great hopes were aroused by the
announcement that in tuberculin he had prepared an agent which exercised
an inimical influence on the growth of the tubercle bacillus, but the
expectations that were formed of it as a remedy for consumption were not
fulfilled, though it came into considerable vogue as a means of
diagnosing the existence of tuberculosis in animals intended for food.
At the Congress on Tuberculosis held in London in 1901 he maintained
that tuberculosis in man and in cattle is not the same disease, the
practical inference being that the danger to men of infection from milk
and meat is less than from other human subjects suffering from the
disease. This statement, however, was not regarded as properly proved,
and one of its results was the appointment of a British Royal Commission
to study the question. Dr Koch also investigated the nature of
rinderpest in South Africa in 1896, and found means of combating the
disease. In 1897 he went to Bombay at the head of a commission formed to
investigate the bubonic plague, and he subsequently undertook extensive
travels in pursuit of his studies on the origin and treatment of
malaria. He was summoned to South Africa a second time in 1903 to give
expert advice on other cattle diseases, and on his return was elected a
member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1906-1907 he spent eighteen
months in East Africa, investigating sleeping-sickness. He died at
Baden-Baden of heart-disease on the 28th of May 1910. Koch was
undoubtedly one of the greatest bacteriologists ever known, and a great
benefactor of humanity by his discoveries. Honours were showered upon
him, and in 1905 he was awarded the Nobel prize for medicine.
Among his works may be mentioned: _Weitere Mitteilungen über ein
Heilmittel gegen Tuberkulose_ (Leipzig, 1891); and _Reiseberichte über
Rinderpest, Bubonenpest in Indien und Afrika, Tsetse- oder
Surra-Krankheit, Texasfieber, tropische Malaria, Schwarzwasserfieber_
(Berlin, 1898). From 1886 onwards he edited, with Dr Karl Flügge, the
_Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten_ (published at
Leipzig). See Loeffler, "Robert Koch, zum 60ten Geburtstage" in _Deut.
Medizin. Wochenschr._ (No. 50, 1903).
KOCH, a tribe of north-eastern India, which has given its name to the
state of Kuch Behar (q.v.). They are probably of Mongolian stock, akin
to the Mech, Kachari, Garo and Tippera tribes, and originally spoke,
like these, a language of the Bodo group. But since one of their chiefs
established a powerful kingdom at Kuch Behar in the 16th century they
have gradually become Hinduized, and now adopt the name of Rajbansi (=
"of royal blood"). In 1901 the number in Eastern Bengal and Assam was
returned at nearly 2½ millions.
KOCK, CHARLES PAUL DE (1793-1871), French novelist, was born at Passy on
the 21st of May 1793. He was a posthumous child, his father, a banker of
Dutch extraction, having been a victim of the Terror. Paul de Kock began
life as a banker's clerk. For the most part he resided on the Boulevard
St Martin, and was one of the most inveterate of Parisians. He died in
Paris on the 27th of April 1871. He began to write for the stage very
early, and composed many operatic libretti. His first novel, _L'Enfant
de ma femme_ (1811), was published at his own expense. In 1820 he began
his long and successful series of novels dealing with Parisian life with
_Georgette, ou la mère du Tabellion_. His period of greatest and most
successful activity was the Restoration and the early days of Louis
Philippe. He was relatively less popular in France itself than abroad,
where he was considered as the special painter of life in Paris. Major
Pendennis's remark that he had read nothing of the novel kind for thirty
years except Paul de Kock, "who certainly made him laugh," is likely to
remain one of the most durable of his testimonials, and may be classed
with the legendary question of a foreign sovereign to a Frenchman who
was paying his respects, "Vous venez de Paris et vous devez savoir des
nouvelles. Comment se porte Paul de Kock?" The disappearance of the
_grisette_ and of the cheap dissipation described by Henri Murger
practically made Paul de Kock obsolete. But to the student of manners
his portraiture of low and middle class life in the first half of the
19th century at Paris still has its value.
The works of Paul de Kock are very numerous. With the exception of a few
not very felicitous excursions into historical romance and some
miscellaneous works of which his share in _La Grande ville, Paris_
(1842), is the chief, they are all stories of middle-class Parisian
life, of _guinguettes_ and _cabarets_ and equivocal adventures of one
sort or another. The most famous are _André le Savoyard_ (1825) and _Le
Barbier de Paris_ (1826).
His _Mémoires_ were published in 1873. See also Th. Trimm, _La Vie de
Charles Paul de Kock_ (1873).
KODAIKANAL, a sanatorium of southern India, in the Madura district of
Madras, situated in the Palni hills, about 7000 ft. above sea-level;
pop. (1901), 1912, but the number in the hot season would be much
larger. It is difficult of access, being 44 m. from a railway station,
and the last 11 m. are impracticable for wheeled vehicles. It contains a
government observatory, the appliances of which are specially adapted
for the study of terrestrial magnetism, seismology and solar physics.
KODAMA, GENTARO, COUNT (1852-1907), Japanese general, was born in
Choshu. He studied military science in Germany, and was appointed
vice-minister of war in 1892. He became governor-general of Formosa in
1900, holding at the same time the portfolio of war. When the conflict
with Russia became imminent in 1903, he gave up his portfolio to become
vice-chief of the general staff, a sacrifice which elicited much public
applause. Throughout the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5) he served as chief
of staff to Field Marshal Oyama, and it was well understood that his
genius guided the strategy of the whole campaign, as that of General
Kawakami had done in the war with China ten years previously. General
Kodama was raised in rapid succession to the ranks of baron, viscount
and count, and his death in 1907 was regarded as a national calamity.
KODUNGALUR (or CRANGANUR), a town of southern India, in Cochin state,
within the presidency of Madras. Though now a place of little
importance, its historical interest is considerable. Tradition assigns
to it the double honour of having been the first field of St Thomas's
labours (A.D. 52) in India and the seat of Cheraman Perumal's
government. The visit of St Thomas is generally considered mythical; but
it is certain that the Syrian Church was firmly established here before
the 9th century (Burnell), and probably the Jews' settlement was still
earlier. The latter, in fact, claim to hold grants dated A.D. 378. The
cruelty of the Portuguese drove most of the Jews to Cochin. Up to 1314,
when the Vypin harbour was formed, the only opening in the Cochin
backwater, and outlet for the Periyar, was at Kodungalur, which must
then have been the best harbour on the coast. In 1502 the Syrian
Christians invoked the protection of the Portuguese. In 1523 the latter
built their first fort there, and in 1565 enlarged it. In 1661 the Dutch
took the fort, the possession of which for the next forty years was
contested between this nation, the zamorin, and the raja of Kodungalur.
In 1776 Tippoo seized the stronghold. The Dutch recaptured it two years
later, and, having ceded it to Tippoo in 1784, sold it to the Travancore
raja, and again in 1789 to Tippoo, who destroyed it in the following
year. The country round Kodungalur now forms an autonomous principality,
tributary to the raja of Cochin.
KOENIG, KARL DIETRICH EBERHARD (1774-1851), German palaeontologist, was
born at Brunswick in 1774, and was educated at Göttingen. In 1807 he
became assistant keeper, and in 1813 he was appointed keeper, of the
department of natural history in the British Museum, and afterwards of
geology and mineralogy, retaining the post until the close of his life.
He described many fossils in the British Museum in a classic work
entitled _Icones fossilium sectiles_ (1820-1825). He died in London on
the 6th of September 1851.
KOESFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on
the Berkel, 38 m. by rail N.N.W. of Dortmund. Pop. (1905), 8449. It has
three Roman Catholic churches, one of which--the Gymnasial Kirche--is
used by the Protestant community. Here are the ruins of the Ludgeri
Castle, formerly the residence of the bishops of Münster, and also the
castle of Varlar, the residence of the princes of Salm-Horstmar. The
leading industries include the making of linen goods and machinery.
KOHAT, a town and district of British India, in the Peshawar division of
the North-West Frontier Province. The town is 37 m. south of Peshawar by
the Kohat Pass, along which a military road was opened in 1901. The
population in 1901 was 30,762, including 12,670 in the cantonment, which
is garrisoned by artillery, cavalry and infantry. In the Tirah campaign
of 1897-98 Kohat was the starting-point of Sir William Lockhart's
expedition against the Orakzais and Afridis. It is the military base for
the southern Afridi frontier as Peshawar is for the northern frontier of
the same tribe, and it lies in the heart of the Pathan country.
The DISTRICT OF KOHAT has an area of 2973 sq. m. It consists chiefly of
a bare and intricate mountain region east of the Indus, deeply scored
with river valleys and ravines, but enclosing a few scattered patches of
cultivated lowland. The eastern or Khattak country especially comprises
a perfect labyrinth of ranges, which fall, however, into two principal
groups, to the north and south of the Teri Toi river. The Miranzai
valley, in the extreme west, appears by comparison a rich and fertile
tract. In its small but carefully tilled glens, the plane, palm, fig and
many orchard trees flourish luxuriantly; while a brushwood of wild
olive, mimosa and other thorny bushes clothes the rugged ravines upon
the upper slopes. Occasional grassy glades upon their sides form
favourite pasture grounds for the Waziri tribes. The Teri Toi, rising on
the eastern limit of Upper Miranzai, runs due eastward to the Indus,
which it joins 12 m. N. of Makhad, dividing the district into two main
portions. The drainage from the northern half flows southward into the
Teri Toi itself, and northward into the parallel stream of the Kohat
Toi. That of the southern tract falls northwards also into the Teri Toi,
and southwards towards the Kurram and the Indus. The frontier mountains,
continuations of the Safed Koh system, attain in places a considerable
elevation, the two principal peaks, Dupa Sir and Mazi Garh, just beyond
the British frontier, being 8260 and 7940 ft. above the sea
respectively. The Waziri hills, on the south, extend like a wedge
between the boundaries of Bannu and Kohat, with a general elevation of
less than 4000 ft. The salt-mines are situated in the low line of hills
crossing the valley of the Teri Toi, and extending along both banks of
that river. The deposit has a width of a quarter of a mile, with a
thickness of 1000 ft.; it sometimes forms hills 200 ft. in height,
almost entirely composed of solid rock-salt, and may probably rank as
one of the largest veins of its kind in the world. The most extensive
exposure occurs at Bahadur Khel, on the south bank of the Teri Toi. The
annual output is about 16,000 tons, yielding a revenue of £40,000.
Petroleum springs exude from a rock at Panoba, 23 m. east of Kohat; and
sulphur abounds in the northern range. In 1901 the population was
217,865, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. The frontier tribes
on the Kohat border are the Afridis, Orakzais, Zaimukhts and Turis. All
these are described under their separate names. A railway runs from
Kushalgarh through Kohat to Thal, and the river Indus has been bridged
at Kushalgarh.
KOHAT PASS, a mountain pass in the North-West Frontier Province of
India, connecting Kohat with Peshawar. From the north side the defile
commences at 4½ m. S.W. of Fort Mackeson, whence it is about 12 or 13 m.
to the Kohat entrance. The pass varies from 400 yds. to 1¼ m. in width,
and its summit is some 600 to 700 ft. above the plain. It is inhabited
by the Adam Khel Afridis, and nearly all British relations with that
tribe have been concerned with this pass, which is the only connexion
between two British districts without crossing and recrossing the Indus
(see AFRIDI). It is now traversed by a cart-road.
KOHISTAN, a tract of country on the Peshawar border of the North-West
Frontier Province of India. Kohistan means the "country of the hills"
and corresponds to the English word highlands; but it is specially
applied to a district, which is very little known, to the south and west
of Chilas, between the Kagan valley and the river Indus. It comprises an
area of over 1000 sq. m., and is bounded on the N.W. by the river Indus,
on the N.E. by Chilas, and on the S. by Kagan, the Chor Glen and Allai.
It consists roughly of two main valleys running east and west, and
separated from each other by a mountain range over 16,000 ft. high. Like
the mountains of Chilas, those in Kohistan are snow-bound and rocky
wastes from their crests downwards to 12,000 ft. Below this the hills
are covered with fine forest and grass to 5000 or 6000 ft., and in the
valleys, especially near the Indus, are fertile basins under
cultivation. The Kohistanis are Mahommedans, but not of Pathan race, and
appear to be closely allied to the Chilasis. They are a well-built,
brave but quiet people who carry on a trade with British districts, and
have never given the government much trouble. There is little doubt that
the Kohistanis are, like the Kafirs of Kafiristan, the remnants of old
races driven by Mahommedan invasions from the valleys and plains into
the higher mountains. The majority have been converted to Islam within
the last 200 years. The total population is about 16,000.
An important district also known as Kohistan lies to the north of Kabul
in Afghanistan, extending to the Hindu Kush. The Kohistani Tajiks proved
to be the most powerful and the best organized clans that opposed the
British occupation of Kabul in 1879-80. Part of their country is highly
cultivated, abounding in fruit, and includes many important villages. It
is here that the remains of an ancient city have been lately discovered
by the amir's officials, which may prove to be the great city of
Alexander's founding, known to be to the north of Kabul, but which had
hitherto escaped identification.
The name of Kohistan is also applied to a tract of barren and hilly
country on the east border of Karachi district, Sind.
KOHL. (1) The name of the cosmetic used from the earliest times in the
East by women to darken the eyelids, in order to increase the lustre of
the eyes. It is usually composed of finely powdered antimony, but smoke
black obtained from burnt almond-shells or frankincense is also used.
The Arabic word _kohl_, from which has been derived "alcohol," is
derived from _kahala_, to stain. (2) "Kohl" or "kohl-rabi" (cole-rape,
from Lat. _caulis_, cabbage) is a kind of cabbage (q.v.), with a
turnip-shaped top, cultivated chiefly as food for cattle.
KOHLHASE, HANS, a German historical figure about whose personality some
controversy exists. He is chiefly known as the hero of Heinrich von
Kleist's novel, _Michael Kohlhaas_. He was a merchant, and not, as some
have supposed, a horsedealer, and he lived at Kölln in Brandenburg. In
October 1532, so the story runs, whilst proceeding to the fair at
Leipzig, he was attacked and his horses were taken from him by the
servants of a Saxon nobleman, one Günter von Zaschwitz. In consequence
of the delay the merchant suffered some loss of business at the fair and
on his return he refused to pay the small sum which Zaschwitz demanded
as a condition of returning the horses. Instead Kohlhase asked for a
substantial amount of money as compensation for his loss, and failing to
secure this he invoked the aid of his sovereign, the elector of
Brandenburg. Finding however that it was impossible to recover his
horses, he paid Zaschwitz the sum required for them, but reserved to
himself the right to take further action. Then unable to obtain redress
in the courts of law, the merchant, in a _Fehdebrief_, threw down a
challenge, not only to his aggressor, but to the whole of Saxony. Acts
of lawlessness were soon attributed to him, and after an attempt to
settle the feud had failed, the elector of Saxony, John Frederick I.,
set a price upon the head of the angry merchant. Kohlhase now sought
revenge in earnest. Gathering around him a band of criminals and of
desperadoes he spread terror throughout the whole of Saxony; travellers
were robbed, villages were burned and towns were plundered. For some
time the authorities were practically powerless to stop these outrages,
but in March 1540 Kohlhase and his principal associate, Georg
Nagelschmidt, were seized, and on the 22nd of the month they were broken
on the wheel in Berlin.
The life and fate of Kohlhase are dealt with in several dramas. See
Burkhardt, _Der historische Hans Kohlhase und H. von Kleists Michael
Kohlhaas_ (Leipzig, 1864).
KOKOMO, a city and the county-seat of Howard county, Indiana, U.S.A., on
the Wildcat River, about 50 m. N. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890), 8261;
(1900), 10,609 of whom 499 were foreign-born and 359 negroes; (1910
census), 17,010. It is served by the Lake Erie & Western, the Pittsburg
Cincinnati Chicago & St Louis, and the Toledo St Louis & Western
railways, and by two interurban electric lines. Kokomo is a centre of
trade in agricultural products, and has various manufactures, including
flint, plate and opalescent glass, &c. The total value of the factory
product increased from $2,062,156 in 1900 to $3,651,105 in 1905, or
77.1%; and in 1905 the glass product was valued at $864,567, or 23.7% of
the total. Kokomo was settled about 1840 and became a city (under a
state law) in 1865.
KOKO-NOR (or KUKU-NOR) (_Tsing-hai_ of the Chinese, and _Tso-ngombo_ of
the Tanguts), a lake of Central Asia, situated at an altitude of 9975
ft., in the extreme N.E. of Tibet, 30 m. from the W. frontier of the
Chinese province of Kan-suh, in 100° E. and 37° N. It lies amongst the
eastern ranges of the Kuen-lun, having the Nan-shan Mountains to the
north, and the southern Koko-nor range (10,000 ft.) on the south. It
measures 66 m. by 40 m., and contains half a dozen islands, on one of
which is a Buddhist (i.e. Lamaist) monastery, to which pilgrims resort.
The water is salt, though an abundance of fish live in it, and it often
remains frozen for three months together in winter. The surface is at
times subject to considerable variations of level. The lake is entered
on the west by the river Buhain-gol. The nomads who dwell round its
shores are Tanguts.
KOKSHAROV, NIKOLAÍ IVANOVICH VON (1818-1893), Russian mineralogist and
major-general in the Russian army, was born at Ust-Kamenogork in Tomsk,
on the 5th of December 1818 (O.S.). He was educated at the military
school of mines in St Petersburg. At the age of twenty-two he was
selected to accompany R. I. Murchison and De Verneuil, and afterwards De
Keyserling, in their geological survey of the Russian Empire.
Subsequently he devoted his attention mainly to the study of mineralogy
and mining, and was appointed director of the Institute of Mines. In
1865 he became director of the Imperial Mineralogical Society of St
Petersburg. He contributed numerous papers on euclase, zircon, epidote,
orthite, monazite and other mineralogical subjects to the St Petersburg
and Vienna academies of science, to Poggendorf's _Annalen_, Leonhard and
Brown's _Jahrbuch_, &c. He also issued as separate works _Materialen zur
Mineralogie Russlands_ (10 vols., 1853-1891), and _Vorlesungen über
Mineralogie_ (1865). He died in St Petersburg on the 3rd of January 1893
(O.S.).
KOKSTAD, a town of South Africa, the capital of Griqualand East, 236 m.
by rail S.W. of Durban, 110 m. N. by W. of Port Shepstone, and 150 m. N.
of Port St John, Pondoland. Pop. (1904), 2903, of whom a third were
Griquas. The town is built on the outer slopes of the Drakensberg and is
4270 ft. above the sea. Behind it Mount Currie rises to a height of 7297
ft. An excellent water supply is derived from the mountains. The town is
well laid out, and possesses several handsome public buildings. It is
the centre of a thriving agricultural district and has a considerable
trade in wool, grain, cattle and horses with Basutoland, Pondoland and
the neighbouring regions of Natal. The town is named after the Griqua
chief Adam Kok, who founded it in 1869. In 1879 it came into the
possession of Cape Colony and was granted municipal government in 1893.
It is the residence of the Headman of the Griqua nation. (See KAFFRARIA
and GRIQUALAND.)
KOLA, a peninsula of northern Russia, lying between the Arctic Ocean on
the N. and the White Sea on the S. It forms part of the region of
Lapland and belongs administratively to the government of Archangel. The
Arctic coast, known as the Murman coast (Murman being a corruption of
Norman), is 260 m. long, and being subject to the influence of the North
Atlantic drift, is free from ice all the year round. It is a rocky
coast, built of granite, and rising to 650 ft., and is broken by several
excellent bays. On one of these, Kola Bay, the Russian government
founded in 1895 the naval harbour of Alexandrovsk. From May to August a
productive fishery is carried on along this coast. Inland the peninsula
rises up to a plateau, 1000 ft. in general elevation, and crossed by
several ranges of low mountains, which go up to over 3000 ft. in
altitude. The lower slopes of these mountains are clothed with forest up
to 1300 ft., and in places thickly studded with lakes, some of them of
very considerable extent, e.g. Imandra (330 sq. m.), Ump-jaur,
Nuorti-järvi, Guolle-jaur or Kola Lake, and Lu-jaur. From these issue
streams of appreciable magnitude, such as the Tuloma, Voronya, Yovkyok
or Yokanka, and Ponoi, all flowing into the Arctic, and the Varsuga and
Umba, into the White Sea. The area of the peninsula is estimated at
50,000 sq. m.
See A. O. Kihlmann and Palmén, _Die Expedition nach der Halbinsel
Kola_ (1887-1892) (Helsingfors); A. O. Kihlmann, _Bericht einer
naturwissenschaftlichen Reise durch Russisch-Lappland_ (Helsingfors,
1890); and W. Ramsay, _Geologische Beobachtungen auf der Halbinsel
Kola_ (Helsingfors, 1899).
KOLABA (or COLABA), a district of British India, in the southern
division of Bombay. Area, 2131 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 605,566, showing an
increase of 2% in the decade. The headquarters are at Alibagh. Lying
between the Western Ghats and the sea, Kolaba district abounds in hills,
some being spurs running at right angles to the main range, while others
are isolated peaks or lofty detached ridges. The sea frontage, of about
20 m., is throughout the greater part of its length fringed by a belt of
coco-nut and betel-nut palms. Behind this belt lies a stretch of flat
country devoted to rice cultivation. In many places along the banks of
the salt-water creeks there are extensive tracts of salt marshland, some
of them reclaimed, some still subject to tidal inundation, and others
set apart for the manufacture of salt. The district is traversed by a
few small streams. Tidal inlets, of which the principal are the Nagothna
on the north, the Roha or Chaul in the west, and the Bankot creek in the
south, run inland for 30 or 40 m., forming highways for a brisk trade in
rice, salt, firewood, and dried fish. Near the coast especially, the
district is well supplied with reservoirs. The Western Ghats have two
remarkable peaks--Raigarh, where Sivaji built his capital, and
Miradongar. There are extensive teak and black wood forests, the value
of which is increased by their proximity to Bombay. The Great Indian
Peninsula railway crosses part of the district, and communication with
Bombay is maintained by a steam ferry. Owing to its nearness to that
city, the district has suffered severely from plague. Kolaba district
takes its name from a little island off Alibagh, which was one of the
strongholds of Angria, the Mahratta pirate of the 18th century. The same
island has given its name to Kolaba Point, the spur of Bombay Island
running south that protects the entrance to the harbour. On Kolaba Point
are the terminus of the Bombay & Baroda railway, barracks for a European
regiment, lunatic asylum and observatory.
KOLAR, a town and district of India, in the state of Mysore. The town is
43 m. E. of Bangalore. Pop. (1901), 12,210. Although of ancient
foundation, it has been almost completely modernized. Industries include
the weaving of blankets and the breeding of turkeys for export.
The DISTRICT OF KOLAR has an area of 3180 sq. m. It occupies the portion
of the Mysore table-land immediately bordering the Eastern Ghats. The
principal watershed lies in the north-west, around the hill of Nandidrug
(4810 ft.), from which rivers radiate in all directions; and the whole
country is broken by numerous hill ranges. The chief rivers are the
Palar, the South Pinakini or Pennar, the North Pinakini, and the
Papagani, which are industriously utilized for irrigation by means of
anicuts and tanks. The rocks of the district are mostly syenite or
granite, with a small admixture of mica and feldspar. The soil in the
valleys consists of a fertile loam; and in the higher levels sand and
gravel are found. The hills are covered with scrub, jungle and
brushwood. In 1901 the population was 723,600, showing an increase of
22% in the decade. The district is traversed by the Bangalore line of
the Madras railway, with a branch 10 m. long, known as the Kolar
Goldfields railway. Gold prospecting in this region began in 1876, and
the industry is now settled on a secure basis. Here are situated the
mines of the Mysore, Champion Reef, Ooregum, and Nandidrug companies. To
the end of 1904 the total value of gold produced was 21 millions
sterling, and there had been paid in dividends 9 millions, and in
royalty to the Mysore state one million. The municipality called the
Kolar Gold Fields had in 1901 a population of 38,204; it has suffered
severely from plague. Electricity from the falls of the Cauvery (93 m.
distant) is utilized as the motive power in the mines. Sugar manufacture
and silk and cotton weaving are the other principal industries in the
district. The chief historical interest of modern times centres round
the hill fort of Nandidrug, which was stormed by the British in 1791,
after a bombardment of 21 days.
KOLBE, ADOLPHE WILHELM HERMANN (1818-1884), German chemist, was born on
the 27th of September 1818 at Elliehausen, near Göttingen, where in 1838
he began to study chemistry under F. Wöhler. In 1842 he became assistant
to R. W. von Bunsen at Marburg, and three years later to Lyon Playfair
at London. From 1847 to 1851 he was engaged at Brunswick in editing the
_Dictionary of Chemistry_ started by Liebig, but in the latter year he
went to Marburg as successor to Bunsen in the chair of chemistry. In
1865 he was called to Leipzig in the same capacity, and he died in that
city on the 25th of November 1884. Kolbe had an important share in the
great development of chemical theory that occurred about the middle of
the 19th century, especially in regard to the constitution of organic
compounds, which he viewed as derivatives of inorganic ones, formed from
the latter--in some cases directly--by simple processes of substitution.
Unable to accept Berzelius's doctrine of the unalterability of organic
radicals, he also gave a new interpretation to the meaning of copulae
under the influence of his fellow-worker Edward Frankland's conception
of definite atomic saturation-capacities, and thus contributed in an
important degree to the subsequent establishment of the structure
theory. Kolbe was a very successful teacher, a ready and vigorous
writer, and a brilliant experimentalist whose work revealed the nature
of many compounds the composition of which had not previously been
understood. He published a _Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie_ in 1854,
smaller textbooks of organic and inorganic chemistry in 1877-1883, and
_Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der theoretischen Chemie_ in 1881. From
1870 he was editor of the _Journal für praktische Chemie_, in which many
trenchant criticisms of contemporary chemists and their doctrines
appeared from his pen.
KOLBERG (or COLBERG), a town of Germany, and seaport of the Prussian
province of Pomerania, on the right bank of the Persante, which falls
into the Baltic about a mile below the town, and at the junction of the
railway lines to Belgard and Gollnow. Pop. (1905), 22,804. It has a
handsome market-place with a statue of Frederick William III.; and there
are extensive suburbs, of which the most important is Münde. The
principal buildings are the huge red-brick church of St Mary, with five
aisles, one of the most remarkable churches in Pomerania, dating from
the 14th century; the council-house (Rathaus), erected after the plans
of Ernst F. Zwirner; and the citadel. Kolberg also possesses four other
churches, a theatre, a gymnasium, a school of navigation, and an
exchange. Its bathing establishments are largely frequented and attract
a considerable number of summer visitors. It has a harbour at the mouth
of the Persante, where there is a lighthouse. Woollen cloth, machinery
and spirits are manufactured; there is an extensive salt-mine in the
neighbouring Zillenberg; the salmon and lamprey fisheries are important;
and a fair amount of commercial activity is maintained. In 1903 a
monument was erected to the memory of Gneisenau and the patriot, Joachim
Christian Nettelbeck (1738-1824), through whose efforts the town was
saved from the French in 1806-7.
Originally a Slavonic fort, Kolberg is one of the oldest places of
Pomerania. At an early date it became the seat of a bishop, and although
it soon lost this distinction it obtained municipal privileges in 1255.
From about 1276 it ranked as the most important place in the episcopal
principality of Kamin, and from 1284 it was a member of the Hanseatic
League. During the Thirty Years' War it was captured by the Swedes in
1631, passing by the treaty of Westphalia to the elector of Brandenburg,
Frederick William I., who strengthened its fortifications. The town was
a centre of conflict during the Seven Years' War. In 1758 and again in
1760 the Russians besieged Kolberg in vain, but in 1762 they succeeded
in capturing it. Soon restored to Brandenburg, it was vigorously
attacked by the French in 1806 and 1807, but it was saved by the long
resistance of its inhabitants. In 1887 the fortifications of the town
were razed, and it has since become a fashionable watering-place,
receiving annually nearly 15,000 visitors.
See Riemann, _Geschichte der Stadt Kolberg_ (Kolberg, 1873); Stoewer,
_Geschichte der Stadt Kolberg_ (Kolberg, 1897); Schönlein, _Geschichte
der Belagerungen Kolbergs in den Jahren 1758, 1760, 1761 und 1807_
(Kolberg, 1878); and Kempin, _Führer durch Bad Kolberg_ (Kolberg,
1899).
KÖLCSEY, FERENCZ (1790-1838), Hungarian poet, critic and orator, was
born at Szodemeter, in Transylvania, on the 8th of August 1790. In his
fifteenth year he made the acquaintance of Kazinczy and zealously
adopted his linguistic reforms. In 1809 Kölcsey went to Pest and became
a "notary to the royal board." Law proved distasteful, and at Cseke in
Szatmár county he devoted his time to aesthetical study, poetry,
criticism, and the defence of the theories of Kazinczy. Kölcsey's early
metrical pieces contributed to the _Transylvanian Museum_ did not
attract much attention, whilst his severe criticisms of Csokonai, Kis,
and especially Berzsenyi, published in 1817, rendered him very
unpopular. From 1821 to 1826 he published many separate poems of great
beauty in the _Aurora_, _Hebe_, _Aspasia_, and other magazines of polite
literature. He joined Paul Szemere in a new periodical, styled _Élet és
literatura_ ("Life and Literature"), which appeared from 1826 to 1829,
in 4 vols., and gained for Kölcsey the highest reputation as a critical
writer. From 1832 to 1835 he sat in the Hungarian Diet, where his
extreme liberal views and his singular eloquence soon rendered him
famous as a parliamentary leader. Elected on the 17th of November 1830 a
member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, he took part in its first
grand meeting; in 1832, he delivered his famous oration on Kazinczy, and
in 1836 that on his former opponent Daniel Berzsenyi. When in 1838 Baron
Wesselényi was unjustly thrown into prison upon a charge of treason,
Kölcsey eloquently though unsuccessfully conducted his defence; and he
died about a week afterwards (August 24) from internal inflammation. His
collected works, in 6 vols., were published at Pest, 1840-1848, and his
journal of the diet of 1832-1836 appeared in 1848. A monument erected to
the memory of Kölcsey was unveiled at Szatmár-Németi on the 25th of
September 1864.
See G. Steinacker, _Ungarische Lyriker_ (Leipzig, and Pest, 1874); F.
Toldy, _Magyar Költök élete_ (2 vols., Pest, 1871); J. Ferenczy and J.
Danielik, _Magyar Irók_ (2 vols., Pest, 1856-1858).
KOLDING, a town of Denmark in the _amt_ (county) of Vejle, on the east
coast of Jutland, on the Koldingfjord, an inlet of the Little Belt, 9
m. N. of the German frontier. Pop. (1901), 12,516. It is on the Eastern
railway of Jutland. The harbour throughout has a depth of over 20 ft. A
little to the north-west is the splendid remnant of the royal castle
Koldinghuus, formerly called Oernsborg or Arensborg. It was begun by
Duke Abel in 1248; in 1808 it was burned. The large square tower was
built by Christian IV. (1588-1648), and was surmounted by colossal
statues, of which one is still standing. It contains an antiquarian and
historical museum (1892). The name of Kolding occurs in the 10th
century, but its earliest known town-rights date from 1321. In 1644 it
was the scene of a Danish victory over the Swedes, and on the 22nd of
April 1849 of a Danish defeat by the troops of Schleswig-Holstein. A
comprehensive view of the Little Belt with its islands, and over the
mainland, is obtained from the Skamlingsbank, a slight elevation 8½ m.
S.E., where an obelisk (1863) commemorates the effort made to preserve
the Danish language in Schleswig.
KOLGUEV, KOLGUEFF or KALGUYEV, an island off the north-west of Russia in
Europe, belonging to the government of Archangel. It lies about 50 m.
from the nearest point of the mainland, and is of roughly oval form, 54
m. in length from N.N.E. to S.S.W. and 39 m. in extreme breadth. It lies
in a shallow sea, and is quite low, the highest point being 250 ft.
above the sea. Peat-bogs and grass lands cover the greater part of the
surface; there are several considerable streams and a large number of
small lakes. The island is of recent geological formation; it consists
almost wholly of disintegrated sandstone or clay (which rises at the
north-west into cliffs up to 60 ft. high), with scattered masses of
granite. Vegetation is scanty, but bears, foxes and other Arctic
animals, geese, swans, &c., provide means of livelihood for a few
Samoyed hunters.
KOLHAPUR, a native state of India, within the Deccan division of Bombay.
It is the fourth in importance of the Mahratta principalities, the other
three being Baroda, Gwalior and Indore; and it is the principal state
under the political control of the government of Bombay. Together with
its _jagirs_ or feudatories, it covers an area of 3165 sq. m. In 1901
the population was 910,011. The estimated revenue is £300,000. Kolhapur
stretches from the heart of the Western Ghats eastwards into the plain
of the Deccan. Along the spurs of the main chain of the Ghats lie wild
and picturesque hill slopes and valleys, producing little but timber,
and till recently covered with rich forests. The centre of the state is
crossed by several lines of low hills running at right angles from the
main range. In the east the country becomes more open and presents the
unpicturesque uniformity of a well-cultivated and treeless plain, broken
only by an occasional river. Among the western hills are the ancient
Mahratta strongholds of Panhala, Vishalgarh, Bavda and Rungna. The
rivers, though navigable during the rains by boats of 2 tons burthen,
are all fordable during the hot months. Iron ore is found in the hills,
and smelting was formerly carried on to a considerable extent; but now
the Kolhapur mineral cannot compete with that imported from Europe.
There are several good stone quarries. The principal agricultural
products are rice, millets, sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, safflower and
vegetables.
The rajas of Kolhapur trace their descent from Raja Ram, a younger son
of Sivaji the Great, the founder of the Mahratta power. The prevalence
of piracy caused the British government to send expeditions against
Kolhapur in 1765 and 1792; and in the early years of the 19th century
the misgovernment of the chief compelled the British to resort to
military operations, and ultimately to appoint an officer to manage the
state. In recent years the state has been conspicuously well governed,
on the pattern of British administration. The raja Shahu Chhatrapati,
G.C.S.I. (who is entitled to a salute of 21 guns) was born in 1874, and
ten years later succeeded to the throne by adoption. The principal
institutions are the Rajaram college, the high school, a technical
school, an agricultural school, and training-schools for both masters
and mistresses. The state railway from Miraj junction to Kolhapur town
is worked by the Southern Mahratta company. In recent years the state
has suffered from both famine and plague.
The town of KOLHAPUR, or KARVIR, is the terminus of a branch of the
Southern Mahratta railway, 30 m. from the main line. Pop. (1901),
54,373. Besides a number of handsome modern public buildings, the town
has many evidences of antiquity. Originally it appears to have been an
important religious centre, and numerous Buddhist remains have been
discovered in the neighbourhood.
KOLIN, or NEU-KOLIN (also _Kollin_; Czech, _Nový Kolín_), a town of
Bohemia, Austria, 40 m. E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 15,025,
mostly Czech. It is situated on the Elbe, and amongst its noteworthy
buildings may be specially mentioned the beautiful early Gothic church
of St Bartholomew, erected during the latter half of the 14th century.
The industries of the town include sugar-refining, steam mills, brewing,
and the manufacture of starch, syrup, spirits, potash and tin ware. The
neighbourhood is known for the excellence of its fruit and vegetables.
Kolin is chiefly famous on account of the battle here on the 18th of
June 1757, when the Prussians under Frederick the Great were defeated by
the Austrians under Daun (see SEVEN YEARS' WAR). The result was the
raising of the siege of Prague and the evacuation of Bohemia by the
Prussians. Kolin was colonized in the 13th century by German settlers
and made a royal city. In 1421 it was captured by the men of Prague, and
the German inhabitants who refused to accept "the four articles" were
expelled. In 1427 the town declared against Prague, was besieged by
Prokop the Great, and surrendered to him upon conditions at the close of
the year.
KOLIS, a caste or tribe of Western India, of uncertain origin. Possibly
the name is derived from the Turki _kuleh_ a slave; and, according to
one theory, this name has been passed on to the familiar word "cooly"
for an agricultural labourer. They form the main part of the inferior
agricultural population of Gujarat, where they were formerly notorious
as robbers; but they also extend into the Konkan and the Deccan. In 1901
the number of Kolis in all India was returned as nearly 3¾ millions; but
this total includes a distinct weaving caste of Kolis or Koris in
northern India.
KÖLLIKER, RUDOLPH ALBERT VON (1817-1905), Swiss anatomist and
physiologist, was born at Zürich on the 6th of July 1817. His father and
his mother were both Zürich people, and he in due time married a lady
from Aargau, so that Switzerland can claim him as wholly her own, though
he lived the greater part of his life in Germany. His early education
was carried on in Zürich, and he entered the university there in 1836.
After two years, however, he moved to the university of Bonn, and later
to that of Berlin, becoming at the latter place the pupil of Johannes
Müller and of F. G. J. Henle. He graduated in philosophy at Zürich in
1841, and in medicine at Heidelberg in 1842. The first academic post
which he held was that of prosector of anatomy under Henle; but his
tenure of this office was brief, for in 1844 his native city called him
back to its university to occupy a chair as professor extraordinary of
physiology and comparative anatomy. His stay here too, however, was
brief, for in 1847 the university of Würzburg, attracted by his rising
fame, offered him the post of professor of physiology and of
microscopical and comparative anatomy. He accepted the appointment, and
at Würzburg he remained thenceforth, refusing all offers tempting him to
leave the quiet academic life of the Bavarian town, where he died on the
2nd of November 1905.
Kölliker's name will ever be associated with that of the tool with which
during his long life he so assiduously and successfully worked, the
microscope. The time at which he began his studies coincided with that
of the revival of the microscopic investigation of living beings. Two
centuries earlier the great Italian Malpighi had started, and with his
own hand had carried far the study by the help of the microscope of the
minute structure of animals and plants. After Malpighi this branch of
knowledge, though continually progressing, made no remarkable bounds
forward until the second quarter of the 19th century, when the
improvement of the compound microscope on the one hand, and the
promulgation by Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden of the "cell
theory" on the other, inaugurated a new era of microscopic
investigation. Into this new learning Kölliker threw himself with all
the zeal of youth, wisely initiated into it by his great teacher Henle,
whose sober and exact mode of inquiry went far at the time to give the
new learning a right direction and to counteract the somewhat fantastic
views which, under the name of the cell theory, were tending to be
prominent. Henle's labours were for the most part limited to the
microscopic investigation of the minute structure of the tissues of man
and of the higher animals, the latter being studied by him mainly with
the view of illustrating the former. But Kölliker had another teacher
besides Henle, the even greater Johannes Müller, whose active mind was
sweeping over the whole animal kingdom, striving to pierce the secrets
of the structure of living creatures of all sorts, and keeping steadily
in view the wide biological problems of function and of origin, which
the facts of structure might serve to solve. We may probably trace to
the influence of these two great teachers, strengthened by the spirit of
the times, the threefold character of Kölliker's long-continued and
varied labours. In all of them, or in almost all of them, the microscope
was the instrument of inquiry, but the problem to be solved by means of
the instrument belonged now to one branch of biology, now to another.
At Zürich, and afterwards at Würzburg, the title of the chair which he
held laid upon him the duty of teaching comparative anatomy, and very
many of the numerous memoirs which he published, including the very
first paper which he wrote, and which appeared in 1841 before he
graduated, "On the Nature of the so-called Seminal Animalcules," were
directed towards elucidating, by help of the microscope, the structure
of animals of the most varied kinds--that is to say, were zoological in
character. Notable among these were his papers on the Medusae and allied
creatures. His activity in this direction led him to make zoological
excursions to the Mediterranean Sea and to the coasts of Scotland, as
well as to undertake, conjointly with his friend C. T. E. von Siebold,
the editorship of the _Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Zoologie_,
which, founded in 1848, continued under his hands to be one of the most
important zoological periodicals.