MILITARY STRATAGEMS.
Characteristic Mark of a skilful General--Importance anciently
attached to military Stratagems--The Stratagem of Joshua at
Ai, the first which is recorded--Stratagem of Julius Cæsar
in Gaul--Favourable Omen derived from Sneezing--Artifice
of Bias at Priene--Telegraphic Communication--Mode adopted
by Hystiæus to convey Intelligence--Relief of Casilinum by
Gracchus--Stratagem of the Chevalier de Luxembourg to convey
Ammunition into Lisle--Importance of concealing the Death of a
General--The manner in which the Death of Sultan Solyman was kept
secret--Stratagem of John Visconti--Stratagem of Lord Norwich at
Angoulême--Capture of Amiens by the Spaniards--Manner in which
the Natives of Sonia threw off the Yoke.
The part of a skilful general does not only consist in the capability
of gaining a great battle, but also in knowing when to avoid the risk
of an engagement. So numerous, and so variable are the chances of war,
that a commander of even the best appointed army should be prepared to
meet all emergencies, in the event of its strength being destroyed,
or its numbers diminished, by famine, fatigue, or desertion; so that,
notwithstanding these adverse circumstances, he may still have a chance
of overcoming by policy those enemies whom he had hoped to subdue by
the sword.
Discretion is always the better part of valour, and, in some cases, a
handful of men may decide the event of a campaign, in which, otherwise,
the blood of thousands might be spilt in vain. The old writers on
the art of war did not fail to attach great importance to those
_stratagems_, by which much was effected, or attempted, when one side
was reduced to the necessity of maintaining a defensive system of
warfare.
The earliest account of recourse being had to military stratagem is
that recorded in the eighth chapter of Joshua, where that leader of
the Israelites, besieging the city of Ai, said, “Behold ye shall lie
in wait against the city, even behind the city: go not very far from
the city, but be ye all ready: and I, and all the people that are with
me, will approach unto the city: and it shall come to pass, when they
come out against us, as at the first, that we will flee before them.
For they will come out after us, till we have drawn them from the city;
then ye shall rise up from the ambush, and seize upon the city: for the
Lord your God will deliver it into your hand.”
Thus fell the city of Ai into the hands of Joshua, and a similar kind
of stratagem has since frequently turned the day between contending
armies. Julius Cæsar did not consider it beneath a general or warrior
to have recourse to almost a similar stratagem, when part of the army
under Q. Cicero, in Gaul, was besieged. By the apparent flight of his
troops, Julius Cæsar drew the enemy into a convenient spot for an
engagement, and, turning, overcame them.
A circumstance most trifling in itself, when it has been ushered in by
superstition, as a good omen, has often raised the spirits of an army.
Xenophon relates, in the Anabasis, that when the Greeks in some alarm
were consulting, previous to the celebrated retreat of the ten thousand
out of Asia, an accident, which in itself was even ridiculous, did
nevertheless, through the importance attributed to it by the Grecian
superstition, assist not a little to infuse encouragement. Xenophon was
speaking of that favour from the gods which a righteous cause entitled
them to hope for, against a perjured enemy, when somebody sneezed:
immediately, the general voice addressed ejaculations to protecting
Jupiter, whose omen it was supposed to be, a sacrifice to the god was
proposed, a universal shout declared approbation, and the whole army in
chorus sang the pæan.
Bias, by the following artifice, induced Alyattes, King of Lydia, to
raise the siege of Priene, where he was born. That city was pressed
by famine, which circumstance being suspected by the besiegers, gave
them great hopes; Bias, however, caused two mules to be fattened, and
contrived a way to have them pass into the enemy’s camp. The good
condition they were in astonished the king, who thereupon sent deputies
into the city, under pretence of offering peace, but really to observe
the state of the town and people. Bias, guessing their errand, had
ordered the granaries to be filled with heaps of sand, and those heaps
to be covered with corn. When the deputies returned, and made their
report to the king, of the great plenty of provisions they had seen in
the city, he hesitated no longer, but concluded a treaty and raised the
siege.
The invention of telegraphic communication has proved of the greatest
utility in modern warfare, both for despatch and security. In ancient
times, the bearer of messages had both an important and dangerous
duty to perform, and one which was very uncertain in its execution.
A singular and ingenious method of communication, is attributed to
Hystiæus, who, desiring to write to Aristagoras, shaved the head of
his trustiest servant, and wrote upon his scalp, in certain brief
characters, what he would impart to his friend, and keeping him in his
house till the hair was grown as thick as before, then sent him on his
errand.[10]
By the policy of Gracchus, the Roman general, the Campanian city of
Casilinum was for a considerable time prevented from falling into the
hands of Annibal. Gracchus was encamped in the vicinity of the city,
but, though the garrison was reduced to the most dreadful extremity by
famine, many of the soldiers having been driven to commit suicide, he
did not dare to make a movement to relieve the besieged, the dictator
having imperatively enjoined him not to stir from his position. In this
emergency he had recourse to stratagem.
The Vulturnus ran through the place, and Gracchus resolved to make it
the channel by which to convey succours. “He therefore,” says Livy,
“collected corn from all parts of the country round, and having filled
therewith a great number of casks, sent a messenger to Casilinum
to the magistrate, desiring that the people should catch the casks
which the river would bring down. The following night was passed in
attentively watching for the completion of the hopes raised by the
Roman messenger, when the casks, being sent along the middle of the
stream, floated down to the town. The same stratagem was practised
with success on the following night and on the third; but the river
being afterwards rendered more rapid by the continued rains, an eddy
drove them across to the side where the enemy’s guards were posted, and
they were discovered sticking among osiers which grew on the banks.
This being reported to Annibal, care was taken for the future to guard
the Vulturnus with greater vigilance, so that no supply sent down by
it to the city should pass without discovery. Notwithstanding which,
quantities of nuts being poured into the river at the Roman camp,
and floating down to Casilinum, were stopped there with hurdles. The
scarcity, however, at last became so excessive, that tearing off the
straps and leathern coverings of their shields, and softening them in
boiling water, they endeavoured to chew them; nor did they abstain from
mice or any other kind of animal. They even dug up every sort of herb
and root that grew at the foot of the ramparts of the town; and when
the enemy had ploughed up all the ground round the wall, that produced
any herbs, they sowed it with turnip seed, which made Annibal exclaim,
‘Am I to sit here before Casilinum until these grow?’ Although he had
hitherto refused to listen to any terms of capitulation, yet he now
allowed overtures to be made to him, respecting the redeeming of the
men of free condition. An agreement was made, that for each of these a
ransom should be paid of seven ounces of gold; and then the garrison
surrendered.”
A still more daring, and almost equally successful stratagem was
employed, early in the eighteenth century, to protract the defence of
Lisle, which was then besieged by the Duke of Marlborough and Prince
Eugene. Ammunition beginning to be scarce in the city, the Chevalier
de Luxembourg formed a plan for introducing into the fortress a
supply, not only of powder, but also of men and arms. Having succeeded
in keeping his project a secret from the enemy, the Chevalier began
his march at the head of two thousand five hundred selected cavalry;
a part of whom were carbineers and dragoons. Each horseman carried
behind him a sack, containing sixty pounds of powder; and each dragoon
and carbineer had three muskets, and a large quantity of gun-flints.
Between nine and ten in the evening, the band reached the barrier of
the lines of circumvallation. In front of the detachment was an officer
who could speak Dutch well, and knew all the Dutch regiments which
were employed in patrolling. On being challenged by the guard, he
unhesitatingly replied, “Open the gate quickly; I am bringing powder
to the besiegers, and am pursued by a French detachment.” The barrier
was promptly opened. Nineteen hundred of the party had passed through,
when a French officer, seeing that his men were straggling, imprudently
exclaimed, in his native language, “Close up! close up!” This gave the
alarm to the allied officers, and a fire was opened upon the French.
The powder of some of the horsemen exploded, and sixty of them were
immediately blown to pieces. The rear of the party now took flight
towards Douay; but of those who had been fortunate enough to pass the
barrier, eighteen hundred reached Lisle, to which they brought a supply
of twelve hundred muskets and eighty thousand pounds of powder.
The well-being of an army, and the spirits of the troops during an
engagement, depend so much on the safety of their favourite general,
that any sudden rumour of his being slain would in all probability
entirely change the fortune of the day. In the event of such a
catastrophe his death has been often studiously concealed from the main
body of the troops, till it was no longer necessary or possible to
withhold such intelligence. The following instance, related by Ward, in
his Art of War, is perhaps the most remarkable, if correctly given, for
the length of time this secret was preserved.
Solyman, the Ottoman emperor, dying at the siege of Sigeth, in Hungary,
his death was cunningly concealed by Mahomet Bassa twenty days before
the Janizaries knew of it; and when any of them inquired for him, he
would show them the emperor sitting in his horse litter, as if troubled
with the gout; but the soldiers, suspecting something, began to be
mutinous, whereupon he promised that they should see the emperor the
next day, for which purpose he apparelled the corpse in the large royal
robes, and placed him in a chair at the end of a long gallery; a little
boy was placed behind, to move the emperor’s hand, and to stroke his
beard, as it seems his manner was. Which sign of life and strength
the soldiers perceiving were well contented, so that his death was
concealed for forty days more till the siege was ended.
John Visconti, Archbishop, as well as Governor of Milan, in the
fourteenth century, was a very ambitious character, and excited the
jealousy of the pope by his show of temporal authority, and by his
aiming at becoming master of all Italy. The pope, who resided at
that time at Avignon, sent a nuncio to John Visconti, to demand the
city of Bologna, which he had purchased, and to choose whether he
would possess the spiritual or temporal power, for both could not be
united. The archbishop, after hearing the message with respect, said
he would answer it the following Sunday, at the cathedral. The day
came, and, after celebrating mass in his pontifical robes, he advanced
towards the legate, requiring him to repeat the orders of the pope,
on the choice of the spiritual or the temporal: then taking a cross
in one hand, and drawing forth a naked sword with the other, he said,
“Behold my spiritual and my temporal, and tell the holy father from
me, that with the one I will defend the other.” The pope, not content
with this answer, commenced a process, and summoned him to appear in
person, on pain of excommunication. The archbishop received the brief,
and promised to obey it; he sent immediately to Avignon one of his
secretaries, ordering him to retain for his use all the houses and
stables he could hire in Avignon, with provisions for the subsistence
of twelve thousand horse, and six thousand foot. The secretary executed
his commission so well that the strangers, who came on business, could
find no place to lodge in. The pope, being informed of this, asked
the secretary if the archbishop required so many houses. The latter
answered, that he feared those would not be sufficient, because his
master was coming with eighteen thousand troops, besides a great number
of the inhabitants of Milan, who would accompany him. Terrified at
this account, the pope paid immediately the expense the secretary had
been at, and dismissed him, with orders to tell the archbishop, that he
dispensed with his making a journey to Avignon.
In the wars between Edward the Third and Philip of France, Angoulême
was besieged by the Duke of Normandy. After a brave and vigorous
defence, the governor, Lord Norwich, found himself reduced to such
extremities, as obliged him to employ a stratagem, in order to save his
garrison, and prevent his being reduced to surrender at discretion. He
appeared on the walls, and desired a parley with the Duke of Normandy.
The duke told Norwich that he supposed he intended to capitulate. “Not
at all,” replied he; “but as to-morrow is the feast of the Virgin, to
whom I know that you, sir, as well as myself, bear a great devotion,
I desire a cessation of arms for that day.” The proposal was agreed
to, and Norwich, having ordered his forces to prepare all their
baggage, marched out next day, and advanced towards the French camp.
The besiegers, imagining that they were to be attacked, ran to their
arms; but Norwich sent a messenger to the Duke, reminding him of his
engagement. The duke, who piqued himself on faithfully keeping his
word, exclaimed, “I see the governor has outwitted me, but let us be
content with gaining the place;” and the English were allowed to pass
through the besieging army unmolested.
By the following stratagem on the part of the Spaniards, in 1597,
Amiens was taken. Soldiers, disguised like peasants, conducted a cart
loaded with nuts towards the gate of the town, and let them fall, as
if accidentally, just as the gate was opened; and while the guard was
busied in gathering them up, the Spaniards entering, secured the gate,
and thus gave their countrymen the opportunity to come up, and become
masters of the town.
According to the testimony of the natives of Congo, says Mr. Maxwell,
the country of Sonia, amongst other tribes, at no great distance of
time, formed part of the kingdom of Congo, and the people of Sonia were
obliged to carry burdens of white sand, from the beach to Banza-Congo,
one hundred and fifty miles distant, to form pleasant walks to the
royal residence. This servitude greatly exasperated the men of Sonia,
whose warlike and independent spirit is now feared and respected by
all the neighbouring nations; and, having concealed their weapons in
the several burdens of sand, they were by this contrivance enabled to
avenge themselves of the indignity put upon them, and to plunder the
city, killing many of the queen’s people. Having thus shaken off their
yoke, Sonia has since been governed by native princes.